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.10712. Price 25 Cents 




PRELIMINARY 
AND ADVANCED 
INSTRUCTION. 

COMPETITIVE 

SWIMMING. 

FANCY DIVING. 
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4-14 





























L. de B. HANDLEY 
New York Athletic Club 




fol-fi: 


Spalding s “Red Cover’’ Series of 
Athletic Handbooks 
No. 107R 


iUn 


SWIMMING FOR 
WOMEN 

Preliminary and Advanced Instruction in 

COMPETITIVE SWIMMING 
FANCY DIVING AND 
LIFESAVING 

Questions and Answers on Swimming Technique 


• > 


BY 


L. DE B. HANDLEY 

New York Athletic Club 

Author of " Swimming and Watermanship” 


Endorsed By 

THE WOMEN’S SWIMMING ASSOCIATION 
OF NEW YORK 


) 9 

n PUBLISHED BY n 

-*”1 AMERICAN SPORTS PUBLISHING CO. 

*— —) 45 Rose Street, New York t — *— 1 

a n P - S n D| 


w\ 

















<^V637 

.H35 


Copyright, 1323 

BY 

American Sports Publishing Company 
New York 



©C1A711435 


n 4-o 


i^auS. 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 


r 

'r 

02 

Publishers’ Note 


Introduction ....... 7 


Chapter I 

Swimming an Essential Item in Physical 
Education. 


Chapter II 

The Most Efficient Swimming Stroke . . 13 


Chapter III 

Preliminary Schooling in Swimming 

Chapter IV 
Home Practice for Swimming . 

Chapter V 
The American Crawl . 

Chapter VI 
Swimming on the Back 

Chapter VII 
The Breast Stroke - 

Chapter VIII 
Competitive Swimming 


• 17 

• 27 

• 3 [ 

• 45 

• 53 

• 59 


* 


PAGE 


Chapter IX 
Training for Competition .... 68 

Chapter X 

Advice to the Ambitious.71 

Chapter XI 

Learn to Float.73 

Chapter XII 

Lifesaving.79 

Chapter XIII 

Fancy Diving.93 

Chapter XIV 

Collegiate and Scholastic Swimming for Girls 108 

Questions and Answers on Swimming Tech¬ 
nique .112 

A.A.U. and Olympic Swimming and Diving 
Rules.121 

How to Score a Diving Competition . . 138 


Women’s Swimming Association of New York 143 


PUBLISHERS’ NOTE 


L. de B. Handley, the author of this book, al¬ 
though an amateur, is recognized as the leading 
international authority in swimming and water 
sports for women. 

He developed from novicehood six of the twelve 
girl stars who represented the United States in 
the Olympic Games of 1920 at Antwerp and other 
famous American women swimmers. Among his 
pupils deserve mention, Miss Claire Galligan, 
all-round national swimming champion of 1918; 
Miss Charlotte Boyle, who succeeded her to the 
title; Miss Ethelda Bleibtrey, double Olympic 
champion; Miss Alice Lord, another title holder; 
and the Misses Helen Wainwright, Aileen Riggin, 
Helen Meany and Gertrude Ederle, who became 
world’s recordists in relay swimming when im¬ 
mature lassies of twelve and thirteen, and at¬ 
tained international fame later. Miss Riggin, it 
may be mentioned, was only thirteen when 
selected as a member of the Olympic team of 
1920 and won the Olympic diving championship. 

A competitor with an enviable record, Mr. 
Handley was leader of the New York A. C. swim- 


ming team which scored the highest point total 
at the Olympic Games of 19O4 in St. Louis and he 
captained and coached the “Mercury Foot” 
water polo sextet which held the national cham¬ 
pionship for more than ten years. But throughout 
his career as a contestant he volunteered freely 
his services as coach and turned out winning 
squads for colleges, schools and clubs. 

When the Amateur Athletic Union undertook 
to standardize water sports for women the New 
York Women’s Swimming Association requested 
Mr. Handley to take charge of its racing girls 
and he has supervised their work ever since, 
developing for the organization the greatest senior 
and junior teams ever produced in any country. 

A prolific writer on aquatic subjects, Mr. 
Handley’s books and articles have had worldwide 
circulation and been largely instrumental in 
fostering the remarkable progress made in swim¬ 
ming in recent years. His “Swimming and Water¬ 
manship” is acknowledged as one of the most 
complete and informative books on the subject. 


INTRODUCTION 


In this age of athletic sport, no field of endeavor 
has made greater strides than that of swimming 
for women. 

While, of course, for years many women have 
been excellent swimmers, the accomplishment 
might be termed individual rather than collective. 
How many tragedies might have been averted in 
years gone by had custom looked with more in¬ 
terest on women becoming proficient in the vital 
knowledge of swimming. Now, however, swim¬ 
ming is compulsory in women’s colleges and 
schools, and in the athletic world has reached the 
status of competition, the recognition of the 
International Amateur Athletic Federation and 
inclusion in the Olympic Games programme estab¬ 
lishing competitive swimming for women as a per¬ 
manent feature in the world of sport. 

Singularly enough, to the competitive side of 
the sport can be attributed the great impetus 
which has been given to women’s swimming. 
While for years it was realized that a knowledge of 
the art was essential for everyone, the apathy in 


general was disheartening until the competitive 
feature began to make itself felt. With the in¬ 
crease in swimming pools in which women could 
be taught, naturally came impromptu and then 
organized competition, culminating in the recog¬ 
nition by the International Olympic Committee of 
women’s place in the Olympic Games programme. 
Undoubtedly the selection of an American team 
of girls to represent the United States at the 
Olympic Games at Antwerp in 1920—and their 
subsequent victories—established amateur swim¬ 
ming for women as a sport in this country. 

It is a matter of much cause for congratulation 
that in the arena of competition the pioneer 
women swimmers had wise counsel and guidance 
from a small number of devoted women and men 
who had struggled for years to secure recognition 
for the sport and at the same time retain its 
amateur feature of an accomplishment rather than 
a vocation. Shunning the sensational and con¬ 
ducting themselves with a demeanor that one 
would expect in daily life, these girls earned for 
themselves and established for their successors a 
respect which is universally accorded women swim¬ 
mers quite as much for their personality as for 
their ability. 



Spalding's Athletic Library 


9 


Chapter I 

SWIMMING AN ESSENTIAL ITEM IN 
PHYSICAL EDUCATION 

Time was, and not so long ago, when swimming 
was considered a negligible accomplishment by 
girls and women, doubtless desirable for pastime, 
yet not at all necessary. 

In recent years, however, the value of ability 
in watermanship has become recognized univers¬ 
ally. Today swimming is looked upon as an 
essential item in physical education, not only 
because it enables its devotees to guard against 
the danger of drowning and protect others, but 
because it affords the best means to exercise 
pleasantly and profitably. 

There is, in fact, no better form of physical 
culture. Swimming brings into action the entire 
system, giving every part of the body its pro¬ 
portionate share of the work; it develops thor¬ 
oughly and symmetrically, producing supple, 
resilient, well-rounded muscles; it makes for grace 
of carriage and ease of movement; it activates 
and strengthens the functional organs; it ensures 
robust health and good spirits. 


10 


Spalding's Athletic Library 

Moreover, it is an effective normalizes Its 
natural tendency is to establish standard body 
proportions by building muscles and tissue in the 
unduly lean, by working off gradually the excess 
of flesh in the over-stout. 

Swimming will correct many physical defects 
also; it will help to make impervious to sickness 
and disease; it has proven a cure for nervous and 
other complaints. 

Needless to say, though, nothing worth while is 
accomplished without effort and in order to reap 
the full benefit from swimming it is necessary to 
practice often and systematically. An occasional 
swim may help, but real results are attained only 
through faithful and painstaking work. 

It is all important, too, to swim a good stroke 
and use it correctly. The effort in swimming 
decreases in proportion to the skill acquired. 
While an inexperienced swimmer, or one addicted 
to faulty methods, will become exhausted after 
covering even a short distance, the proficient 
devotee of a scientific stroke may go miles without 
tiring. 

It requires very little effort to hold an efficient, 
well mastered stroke, and this is one of the things 
which makes swimming a particularly desirable 


I ] 


Spalding’s Athletic Library 

form of exercise for girls and women, as it permits 
them to practice at length without feeling any ill 
effects. 

Another great advantage of swimming is that it 
never becomes irksome. Anyone who has in¬ 
dulged regularly in calisthenics, gymnasium work 
and like physical activities knows how monotonous 
and tedious they grow in time. On the other hand, 
virtually all girls and women enjoy bathing, 
whether outdoors or in a pool, so exercise taken 
in the water seems to them more like recreation 
than physical training. 

One is asked frequently how often and how 
long a swimmer should practice to attain best 
results, but the question cannot be answered in 
generalities. It must be obvious that a great 
deal will depend on the skill of the individual, 
her condition at the time, and the object in 
view, whether to merely develop ability, seek 
health, build up or reduce, prepare for competition, 
etc. It is a good plan always to consult an 
expert before outlining a schedule. 

This may be said, however: Any normal girl 
and woman who is proficient in swimming, 
healthy and in good condition, will profit by 
going in as often as she pleases, even daily. The 


12 Spalding's Athletic Library 

important thing is to swim at moderate pace 
always, covering middle distance stretches, say 
from 300 to 1,000 yards, and stopping for a 
rest as soon as one feels tired. 

Doubtless the inexperienced will consider going 
several hundred yards a momentous task, but 
when form has been gained it is an easy matter to 
increase the distance little by little, until one is 
able to go even miles without the least strain. 
There could be mentioned many successful racing 
swimmers who trained on a steady, almost daily 
diet of middle distance swimming to start with, 
when ten to fifteen years old, and thrived on it, 
growing into strong, hearty, healthy young 
women, brilliant stars in the held of competition. 

It should be added that swimming has no age 
limitations. The sooner a child is schooled in 
watermanship, the better, for she will be taught 
more readily in infancy that ever after. Cases 
might be cited of little girls of three or four 
having mastered the swimming stroke in excellent 
form. On the other hand, it is never too late to 
learn. Women have been known to take their 
first lessons when sixty and seventy years old, 
yet succeeded in becoming good swimmers. 


Spalding’s Athletic Library 


13 


Chapter II 

THE MOST EFFICIENT SWIMMING 

STROKE 

Girls and women who seek instruction in 
swimming should not be misled into believing 
that old-fashioned strokes are best for them. 
Unfortunately, quite a few of our teachers still 
cling to methods of bygone days and do not 
advocate the modern strokes, except for competi¬ 
tive purposes, which is a great mistake. 

Let every prospective swimmer realize that 
the up-to-date strokes now used for racing could 
not have brought success to contestants, and 
become the accepted medium for competition 
thereby, had they not afforded greater speed 
and endurance than their predecessors, out of 
the same amount of power, represented by human 
strength and stamina. Now greater efficiency 
from the identical fund of energy can mean only 
one thing, viz.: reduced effort. Obviously, then, 
these newer strokes will enable girls and women 
to utilize more adequately their natural resources 
and either cover a given course faster, or last 
longer in an unlimited swim, than earlier styles. 


14 


Spalding's Athletic Library 

Consider now that in swimming to save one’s 
life speed may be an all-important factor, for it 
is often necessary to overcome swift tides or 
currents, which a slow swimmer cannot stem; also 
that a person caught far from shore will have the 
best chance to reach safety,or be rescued,if addicted 
to the stroke which yields the maximum of speed 
and endurance from the minimum of effort. Is 
it not self-evident that the so-called racing styles 
will afford the greatest protection against danger? 

As for pleasure bathing, it is not conceivable 
that anyone should prefer the less efficient strokes, 
and when it comes to swimming for exercise it 
can be demonstrated scientifically that the modern 
methods develop more thoroughly and uniformly 
than the old. 

This established, it may be pointed out that 
results in national and international competition 
have furnished convincing proof of the supremacy 
of the American crawl, so there can be no question 
concerning the advisability of adopting it. 

Speaking broadly, the American crawl is a 
stroke in which the arms work alternately, driving 
under the body, recovering above surface, while 
the legs whip up and down in a continuous, 
alternate, rather narrow thrash. Three varieties 


15 


S paid mg’s Athletic Library 

of it are in use at present, under the respective 
names of straight crawl, single trudgeon-crawl 
and double trudgeon-crawl, but the difference 
between them is very slight, as will be explained 
later. Moreover, we have yet to ascertain 
definitely which of the three is best. 

The fact which needs be brought out here is 
that exponents of the American crawl have 
eclipsed completely all records set with other 
strokes and defeated conclusively devotees of the 
latter over those Marathon courses for which no 
records can be listed officially because of ever- 
varying conditions. Also that the greatest feats 
of combined speed and endurance ever accom¬ 
plished stand to the credit of swimmers affecting 
the American type of crawl. 

This, in itself, furnishes incontestable evidence 
that the American crawl requires less effort 
than the older strokes. But there is further 
evidence in the remarkable performances it has 
enabled mere children to achieve. It is an every¬ 
day occurrence for little girls of ten and twelve 
to swim miles with it and several of these baby 
mermaids have earned prizes in Marathon races 
for women, finishing the supposedly gruelling 
tests without displaying a trace of fatigue. 


16 


Spalding’s Athletic Library 

Another point which may be made in favor of 
the crawl is that it is the easiest of all strokes 
to master. Its action greatly resembles that of 
the dog paddle, the stroke which most children 
fall into naturally when trying to swim untaught. 
In other words, its movements conform with 
natural inclination, so that they come almost 
instinctively. 

For all reasons, therefore, take up the crawl 
if you want to become an expert and efficient 
swimmer. 


Spa/ding s Athletic Library 


17 


Chapter III 

PRELIMINARY SCHOOLING IN 
SWIMMING 

Preliminary methods of schooling in swimming 
have been simplified to such an extent that any¬ 
one may learn to swim without the assistance of a 
teacher nowadays. 

Nevertheless, it is the best plan to seek compe¬ 
tent guidance when possible, not only because 
expert advice will ensure more rapid progress, 
but because self-instruction seldom results in 
the development of a stroke perfect in every detail. 

The trouble with self-instruction is that the 
beginner does not see herself in action and often 
incurs faults without being aware of it. These 
faults at times are difficult to eliminate later, 
when the habit of them has been formed. An 
able teacher will undertake to correct them im¬ 
mediately and know exactly how to go about it. 
The result is a shorter novitiate and greater 
proficiency eventually. 

Whether one starts learning to swim with or 
without the aid of an instructor, the best method 



1 —Position to assume in pushing off from wall or board when learning to swim. 2 —Showin 
how body rests on ivater after push-off. 3 —Practicing leg thrash. 

ELEMENTARY EXERCISES FOR BEGINNERS. 


















19 


Spalding's Athletic Library 

to follow is the elementary crawl system. Its 
superiority over all others has been demonstrated 
beyond question. It imparts rudimentary water¬ 
manship in short order, usually at the very first 
lesson, then leads directly and speedily to mastery 
of the advanced crawl. 

Before proceeding to describe the foregoing 
system it seems desirable to say a few words 
concerning the conditions to be sought by prefer¬ 
ence, particularly if one is to go through without 
help. 

The most advantageous place for practice is 
a pool, the temperature of which is a little above 
blood heat and which affords a stretch of several 
yards with water waist-deep. The importance 
of having the temperature right should not be 
underestimated. Chilly water inevitably causes 
a sense of fear in the non-swimmer and it tenses 
the muscles also, making the action of arms and 
legs less free. A warm pool gives a feeling of 
comfort and militates toward muscular relaxation. 
Shallow water aids materially by imparting a 
sense of security and thereby inspiring confidence, 
the greatest asset in learning to swim. 

When a pool is not available, effort should be 
made to find the same conditions, as nearly as 


20 Spalding's Athletic Library 

possible, at some beach—be it in sea, lake, river, 
lagoon, etc.—where an upright surface, such as 
a wall, dock, pile, rock or embankment, provides 
a foothold from which to push off in getting under 
way. Lacking this starting upright, it is well 
to undertake the preliminaries on water-wings, 
but best results are attained by using the push-off 
start and practicing without artificial support. 

The first step in the elementary crawl system 
is to become accustomed to submerging the face. 
This should be done by standing in the water, 
taking a deep breath, bending forward until the 
mouth and nose at least are covered, then staying 
under several seconds. After a few such dips 
the eyes are submerged also, trying to keep 
them open. 

Next one gets close to the upright surface 
selected, back toward it, and raises one foot, 
resting it against said upright. Then one leans 
down until the upper body is flat on the water, 
inhales deeply, stretches both arms out in front, 
submerges the face between them, and, using the 
raised foot for propulsion, pushes off vigorously, 
immediately straightening out the whole body, 
so that it forms a horizontal line from tips of 
fingers to toes. Girls and women are buoyant 


21 


S pal ding’s Athletic Library 

naturally, but even the least buoyant will float 
easily when gliding under the momentum acquired 
from the push-off. One should go as far as 
breath can be held without effort. To resume 
standing position it is necessary only to press 
the arms downward, lift the head and drop one 
leg by bending at the waist and literally stepping 
forward. 

Having now gained an idea of the buoyancy 
of the body and the position to assume in swim¬ 
ming, work may be started on the leg drive. 
Again one pushes off in the same manner, but no 
sooner is the body stretched out flat than the 
legs are set in motion, thrashing up and down 
alternately; that is, as one leg moves up, the 
other moves down. The thrash should be narrow, 
the feet only six or eight inches apart at full 
opening, and the action fast, but made easily, 
without effort. The legs are held nearly straight, 
close together; the feet turned slightly inward 
and pointed, as in standing on tiptoe. But the 
muscles must be relaxed, so that there will be a 
little play at knees and ankles. The action is so 
simple that most people fall into it at once. 

The arm stroke is best mastered by trying it 
first while walking on bottom, but stooped 


22 Spalding's Athletic Library 

forward so that the forearms at least will brush 
through the water. Place the left arm flat on 
the surface in front of you, palm down, and 
thrust the right arm behind, hand submerged. 
Turn the head to the right. Now press the left 
arm directly down and back, so that it will 
graze the thigh in passing; at the same time 
move the right arm up, overhead and down 
forward. Stop when the simultaneous circle of 
the two arms has brought the right at water 
level in front, the left on the surface behind you. 
Then turn the head to the left and reverse the 
operation, thrusting the right arm down and 
back, the left up and forward. Next start walking 
slowly and rotate the arms alternately and 
simultaneously without stopping, having care 
to look to the right throughout the forward 
movement of the right arm; to the left throughout 
the forward movement of the left arm. This 
twisting of the head should be timed accurately, 
for otherwise the balance of the body will not be 
correct in swimming. 

Once the head is working in unison with the 
arms you may try the stroke in swimming position, 
starting from a vigorous push-off, as usual. Start 
the leg motion first, then forget the legs and con- 


23 


Spa!ding's Athletic Library 

centrate on the arms, rolling heavily from side to 
side and endeavoring to make the underwater, 
backward sweep of each arm with energy; the 
above-surface, forward movement of each, slowly, 
with muscles relaxed. 

If you go through the movements as practiced 
standing up, and keep the head swinging back 
and forth in time, as indicated, you undoubtedly 
will cover a few yards on your first attempt. 

Let it be mentioned here that one should 
always set the feet in motion before the arms, for 
that makes it much easier to establish the wanted 
rhythm between arms and legs. 

When difficulty is experienced in working the 
arms and legs together it is well to go back to 
trying them separately, so as to perfect the 
action of each more readily. 

Comes next the task or changing slightly the 
recovery (forward, above-surface movement) of 
the arms, to adjust the body to a better balance 
and facilitate swimming respiration. Up to the 
present, if instructions were followed, the arms 
have been recovering straight at the elbow and 
high over the water. Now they must be bent at 
the elbow as soon as each comes to the surface 
after the drive, then carried forward a few inches 


24 Spalding’s Athletic Library 

only above water level. To effect this recovery the 
hand should be turned palm down as it emerged 
from the water a few inches from the thigh; 
then the forearm moves out and around until 
it is pointed straight ahead; lastly, the elbow 
and arm start forward and glide to comfortable 
full reach to enter for the next drive. It is im¬ 
portant to work the arms independently of the 
body and not allow the shoulders to follow the 
arms in recovery. 

Owing to the position assumed for swimming 
the crawl it is necessary to breathe in a manner 
different from the usual, for the face is submerged. 
The method evolved consists of inhaling by mouth 
during the recovery of one arm and exhaling 
through the nostrils, underwater, during the 
recovery of the other. You should choose for 
inhaling the side which natural inclination dictates, 
for this inclination almost invariably indicates 
that your whole stroke favors the same side. 

Before trying the crawl respiration while swim¬ 
ming, however, it is advisable to get the knack of 
it standing on bottom. Fill your lungs with a 
deep inspiration, close the mouth, dip the face, 
then let the air ooze out slowly through the 
nose. Repeat a few times, until you can exhale 


25 


Spalding’s Athletic Library 

easily under water. Then attempt the same 
thing in combination with the stroke, but turning 
the head to one side only. The double turn is 
used effectively in the early stages, but it serves 
no good purpose when swimming respiration is 
introduced. Now it needs be twisted, as hereto¬ 
fore, the minute the top arm (the arm of the side 
one has chosen for inhaling) emerges from the 
water in recovery, and held twisted until this 
arm has reached forward and started its drive. 
Then, though, it is simply turned to normal 
position, not swung to the other side, and it 
remains in normal position until the under arm 
has completed its recovery and applied pressure 
for the next pull. 

This concludes the novitiate. The whole 
stroke has been learned. Thereafter it is a 
question of taking up the particular type of leg 
drive one prefers and gradually perfecting the arm 
action to comply with requirements which we will 
outline more in detail in the chapter on the crawl. 

Meanwhile, it needs be impressed on the 
beginner that nothing is gained by rushing the 
movements in swimming. The slower the arm 
action, the better one is supported on the water, 
providing the propelling drives are made with 


26 Spalding’s Athletic Library 

reasonable power, and the quicker one will 
develop skill. Another important item is relaxation. 
Novices usually hold their muscles so rigidly that 
every motion is awkward and tiring. This retards 
progress unavoidably. Seek freedom of action, 
relax. Your improvement will be far more rapid. 

Correct position of body is all important also. 
Rest on the water as if you were standing upright 
on tiptoe, with arms raised straight above 
shoulders, palms forward, thumbs touching. Hold 
the head erect, the back the least bit arched, 
the legs straight and the feet pointed, so that 
you will form a gentle curve from fingers to toes. 
Guard particularly against folding at the waist 
while in action, for this is a prevalent fault and 
serves to spoil the entire stroke. 

As a final piece of advice to beginners we urge 
perseverance. Natural ability in watermanship 
varies with individuals. Some learn to swim 
almost instinctively, others require much more 
work to attain proficiency. But there is no girl 
or woman who cannot develop into a good swim¬ 
mer if she takes pains and sticks to it. So do not 
become discouraged if you fail to succeed at once. 
Keep going. You will win out presently. In all 
probability, much sooner than you expect. 


Spalding's Athletic Library 


27 


Chapter IV 

HOME PRACTICE FOR SWIMMING 

So many girls and women find it inconvenient 
or actually impossible to practice often while 
learning to swim that it has been deemed advisable 
to devise for them home exercises warranted to be 
most helpful in developing skill. 

The kick may be practiced in several ways. 
The easiest is to sit down comfortably, raise the 
legs to horizontal position, then thrash them up 
and down, alternately and rapidly, holding the 
feet pointed and turned slightly inward, keeping 
the legs straight but not rigid, and making the 
movements narrow and without undue strength. 
The method serves the double purpose of familiar¬ 
izing with the action and strengthening the muscles 
brought into play. 

Another way, particularly valuable to those in¬ 
clined to bend at the waist in swimming, is to 
stretch out flat on a bed or couch, face down, 
and go through the action in this position. To 
raise the feet without bending the knees it is 
necessary to arch the body sensibly and this 


28 Spalding’s Athletic Library 

teaches to assume the correct posture for the 
crawl. 

The movements of head and arms, which it is 
essential to co-ordinate in swimming, are best 
practiced in front of a mirror, first facing it, then 
sideways to it, that one may see the action from 
both angles. 

Begin by bending forward while looking straight 
into the glass and point one arm straight ahead, 
at the height of the shoulder, thrusting the other 
backward, a little lower. See that the arm in 
front is the one of the side toward which you turn 
the head to inhale while swimming. Now proceed 
to go through the stroke, sweeping the front arm 
straight down and back, carrying the other up and 
forward, and keep looking steadily into the mirror 
until the latter arm is fully outstretched before 
you. Then twist the head toward the rear arm 
and hold it there while you reverse the movements, 
thus looking into the glass throughout the down¬ 
ward sweep (drive) of the arm on the breathing 
side, and turned toward said arm throughout its 
glide forward (recovery). Make the drive rapid 
and recovery slow, but keep arms going steadily. 

After doing this for a while change position 
and stand with the shoulder of the side on which 


Spalding's Athletic Library 29 

you inhale toward mirror, again bent over, of 
course. Then stretch arm nearer mirror back¬ 
ward, other in front of you and glance into glass, 
resorting to arm action again. Keep watching 
your reflection throughout the forward movement 
of the arm nearer the mirror, then shift the look 
directly before you and hold the head in normal 
position while the latter arm presses down and 
back and the other moves forward. 

The first part of the exercise will teach you to 
keep the head in natural position during the drive 
of the top arm and enable you also to note if the 
arms pull correctly under the body; the second will 
get you accustomed to holding the head turned to 
inhale throughout the recovery of the same arm 
and give you a chance to study the movements 
from a side view. Remember, however, that the 
arms must clear the water in recovery, so carry 
each forward at the height of the shoulders. By 
having on hand the directions given in preceding 
chapter you will be able to follow the action in 
detail, while looking at yourself perform every 
movement. 

Beginners frequently experience difficulty in 
operating swimming respiration, for most of us 
inhale through the nostrils ordinarily, and it is an 


# 




30 


Spalding's Athletic Library 

excellent plan to practice breathing between 
lessons. This may be done at home with the aid 
of a basin of water. Standing before it take a 
deep breath by mouth, dip your face in the basin, 
relax the lungs, and allow the air to ooze out 
slowly through the nose, under water. This 
exercise gone through a few times daily will be of 
great assistance in developing ease in aquatic 
respiration. 


Spalding s Athletic Libravy 


31 


Chapter V 

THE AMERICAN CRAWL 

After mastering the elements of swimming in 
the manner indicated in the preceding chapters 
it is time to select the particular variety of crawl 
one is to adopt permanently, so that in perfecting 
the action its requirements may be complied 
with. 

The style accepted as the American standard 
nowadays is that known technically as the six- 
beat double trudgeon-crawl. Our greatest swim¬ 
mers of both sexes have been using it and it 
has brought them international leadership in all¬ 
round competition, so there is no questioning 
its supremacy at present. Nevertheless, some 
very able contestants have introduced a new 
style lately, the eight-beat straight crawl, and 
their performances have led experts to take it 
up experimentally. A few of these experts think 
it possible that the stroke may prove its superi¬ 
ority over the double-rhythm six-beat variety 
eventually. Under the circumstances it seems 
advisable to name the latter the best of the 





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THE AMERICAN CRAWL STROKE. 












33 


Spalding's Athletic Library 

tested strokes, yet suggest that the developing 
swimmer give the eight-beat crawl a trial before 
making final decision. The science of natation is 
progressing steadily and there is no telling how 
soon today’s methods will have to pass into the 
discard. 

In addition to the two foregoing varieties the 
American crawl includes the single trudgeon- 
crawl with two, four or six beats (complete 
scissor kicks), and the straight crawl and double 
trudgeon-crawl with the same number of scissoring 
motions. The difference between the lot is simply 
one of leg drive. The action of the arms is the 
same in all. 

The basic unit of the leg drive is the scissor 
kick, a front and back opening and closing of 
the legs, effected with knees almost straight and 
feet pointed. In a way the action may be com¬ 
pared to that of walking on tiptoe with mincing 
steps, except that the legs move back and forth. 
They work alternately and continuously, thus 
performing a steady thrash. 

In the straight crawl all the scissoring motions 
are narrow and of even scope, so that the thrash 
is unbroken and not marked by any accented 
timing. Its width ranges from six to twelve 



1 —Practicing while standing up. 2—Practicing while walking in the water; left arm about 
to start foncard, head turned toward it. 3—Right arm moving forward, head turned toward it. 

PRACTICING CO-ORDINATION OF ARM AND HEAD MOVEMENTS FOR CRAWL. 


















35 


Spa/ding's Athletic Library 

inches. In the single trudgeon-crawl one rather 
wide kick (major) is taken at the end of the top- 
arm drive, and one, three or five very small 
scissors (minor) follow. The major kicks should 
have an opening of fourteen to twenty inches, 
the minors of about six. In the double trudgeon- 
crawl two of the wider scissors are executed, one 
at the end of the drive of each arm, and one or 
two of the smaller sandwiched in between. The 
majors should not exceed thirteen to fifteen 
inches, the minors eight. Both the latter thrashes 
are given a distinct timing by the major kicks, 
so that the single trudgeon crawl is featured by a 
forceful mono-rhythm, the double trudgeon-crawl 
by a less emphatic, but noticeable dual rhythm. 
This explains the names bestowed upon them. 

Nearly all girls and women who take up the 
crawl from the start will find it an easy matter 
to acquire a six-beat leg drive in connection with 
either the crawl or double trudgeon-crawl. Pro¬ 
vided the thrash is narrow and the muscles are 
held in relaxation the six-beat is virtually effort¬ 
less. The one great mistake to avoid is kicking 
too vigorously. Many seem to think that in 
order to whip the legs rapidly it is necessary to 
use all possible strength. But the contrary is 




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4 k " ~'w -j pf 


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1 —Arm leaving water; hand turning down. 2 —Arm in mid-recovery. 3_ 

End of recovery; start of drive. 

RECOVERY OF ARMS IN THE AMERICAN CRAWL STROKE. 

























Spalding’s Athletic Library 37 

the case. Undue exertion stiffens the muscles 
and makes swift movements difficult. 

Mature swimmers addicted to other strokes 
before adopting the crawl, particularly if devotees 
of the breast stroke, may experience trouble in 
effecting the change and fail to develop success¬ 
fully a fast thrash. If this proves the case they 
should try the single trudgeon-crawl with two 
or four beats. It may best suit their needs. 

In practicing the six-beat trudgeon-crawl it is 
of great help to count the kicks mentally, empha¬ 
sizing the count on the first and fourth. The 
number is called as each leg starts downward 
and the count should be One- two-three during 
the drive of the under arm, Four- five-six during 
the recovery of the same arm. 

The most prevalent fault of the legs incurred 
by crawl swimmers, as mentioned already, is to 
bend excessively at waist, knees and ankles. A 
trifling play is necessary or the movements will 
be rigid, but actual bending should be avoided 
carefully, as it causes greatly increased resistance 
to the water. 

The arms work alternately in swimming the 
crawl, one propelling while the other recovers, 
so that the forward impetus is constant. 



i 

f 


■i 


Start of drive. 2—Arm approaching its greatest leverage in mid-drive. 
THE TRUDGEON-CRAWL STROKE. 

















39 


Spalding's Athletic Library 

Each arm enters the water for its drive with 
elbow a trifle higher than hand, forearm pointed 
forward, hand in natural position, palm down, 
fingers and thumb close together. Comfortable 
full reach is sought and the hand dips to its own 
side of a line drawn lengthwise through the middle 
of the body. Gentle downward pressure is 
applied as soon as the hand strikes the surface, 
then, after this has served to lift the shoulder, 
the arm is driven down and backward vigorously. 
At first, while the shoulder is being raised, the 
arm is held nearly outstretched, but after it starts 
propelling the elbow is bent a bit outward, in a 
manner to enable the forearm to be at right 
angles to the surface and keep full leverage on 
the water until near the end of the drive. 

The hand pulls under the body until about 
to strike the thigh, then moves outward. As it 
reaches the surface the muscles of the entire arm 
are relaxed. Then the hand is turned palm down 
and allowed to droop for an instant from the 
wrist, as this facilitates complete relaxation. 
Next, the forearm moves out and around until 
it is pointed almost straight ahead, the hand 
simultaneously returning to normal position, 
aligned with the forearm, but still palm down. 



First part of arm drive: 1 —Arm directly after “catch.” 2 —Where arm starts to bend at elbow. 

THE TRUDGEON-CRAWL STROKE. 






















41 


Spalding’s Athletic Library 

Finally, the elbow is started forward and the 
arm proceeds to full reach for another drive. 

It is all-important to see that the forearm com¬ 
pletes its semi-circle quickly on leaving the water 
and is directed forward before the elbow starts 
ahead. It is equally important to make the 
above-surface recovery very slowly, enabling the 
arm to rest and recuperate between applications 
of power. Elbow and hand should glide forward a 
few inches from the water, level until the hand 
passes the shoulder line. Then the hand begins 
to slope gently downward, that it may be a 
trifle lower than elbow when the entry, or catch, 
is made. 

It is one of the advantages of the crawl that, 
better than any other stroke known at present, 
it enables the swimmer to ride high through the 
water and profit from the hydroplaning principle. 
This is due largely to the continuous propelling 
impulse imparted by both arms and legs, but 
it is necessary to hold the body in the wanted 
position and apply arm power in the right way 
in order to plane most effectively. In fact, the 
various parts of the swimming stroke are so 
closely correlated that the faulty execution of any 
one part will affect inevitably the entire stroke. 


42 


Spalding’s Athletic Library 

The aim in swimming the crawl should be to 
hold the shoulders on a level as much as possible. 
The under shoulder is bound to submerge a bit 
when one turns the head to inhale, but the top 
shoulder, on the breathing side, never should be 
allowed to drop beneath the surface. Both 
shoulders can be supported best by making sure 
that each arm starts its drive, applying firm 
downward pressure, before the other arm emerges 
from the water after its pull, and that neither 
elbow is raised more than a few inches above 
surface in recovery. 

Rolling, except for the purpose of breathing, 
is a costly fault, particularly costly if incurred 
toward the arm which is recovering. It will be 
seen readily that if one lowers the shoulder as 
the arm glides forward above water, said arm 
must either strike the surface and cause a check, 
or attain full reach pointing upward, so that the 
first part of the following drive will be wasted 
altogether. 

It needs be repeated here, too, that the lateral 
balance of the swimmer is controlled in good 
share by the head, so that unless the head is 
timed accurately for the movements of breathing, 
the shoulders will not remain in the wanted 


43 


Spalding’s Athletic Library 

position. If the head is turned to inhale before 
the under arm has started its drive, and thereby 
given support to the under shoulder, that shoulder 
unavoidably will sink unnecessarily; if the head 
is returned to normal position before the top arm 
has applied power the same needless sinking will 
be experienced by the top shoulder. Therefore, 
remember to catch with the under arm before 
turning to inhale, and anchor the top arm before 
turning back to exhale. 

For the rest, the head should be held as in 
standing erect and on the same level always. 
It should never be raised or lowered, nor bent 
toward either shoulder. It is merely twisted 
back and forth, as if it swung on a pivot, in the 
respiratory acts. 

The general action of the crawl should be 
slow and smooth. One must drive with vigor, 
of course, but the recovery of the arms should 
be exceedingly slow. Moreover, the power should 
be distributed judiciously in the arm drive. Firm 
pressure only at first, next a forceful sweep as 
the arm passes its point of greatest leverage in 
mid-drive, then total relaxation at the end of 
the pull. It is a waste of energy to make the 
catch too strongly and a still greater waste to 


44 Spalding's Athletic Library 

whip out of the water with force. Jerks of any 
kind, in fact, should be avoided. They serve 
only to tire the muscles and throw away power. 

No speed swimming should be done while 
learning the crawl, or any other stroke. Girls 
and women almost invariably become anxious 
to see how fast they can go as soon as they are 
able to swim at all and this leads them to thrash 
wildly for a few yards, without a thought to 
form, then stop for want of breath, instead of 
practicing sensibly. As a result they emphasize 
their faults, when they ought to be correcting 
them by going longer stretches at very moderate 
pace, paying close attention to every movement. 

Swim easily always, concentrating successively 
on each of the several parts of the stroke. That 
is the shortest road to proficiency in swimming. 


Spalding's Athletic Library 


45 


Chapter VI 

SWIMMING ON THE BACK 

A number of strokes are available for swimming 
on the back, but two only need be considered 
here: The most desirable stroke for general 

usage and the best for racing. 

Unlike in free style swimming, where the 
crawl fills most efficiently all requirements, one 
must make a distinction for swimming on the 
back, as the racing stroke is somewhat tiring to 
the average girl and woman, so that it cannot be 
recommended for other purposes than competition. 
Outside of racing, in fact, one seldom swims on 
the back except to rest, or give the muscles a 
change of action, so it is obviously advisable for 
non-contestants to learn for practical use the 
stroke which entails the least exertion while 
allowing them to make good headway. 

This stroke is a combination of the leg thrash 
of the crawl, slightly modified, and a short, 
simultaneous drive of the arms. The legs whip 
up and down alternately, as in the crawl, but they 
bend more noticeably and the propelling is done 





1 —In action. 


2—Starting position. 


RACING BACK STROKE. 











Spalding's Athletic Library 47 

chiefly by the lower legs, from the knees down. 
The arms stretch out on either side of the body, 
at the height of the shoulders, cross fashion, 
hands turned so that palms face feet. Then 
arms sweep down together, a few inches below 
surface, performing a circular motion which ends 
with hands at thighs. Here the hands turn 
palm down and glide back slowly to starting 
position, brushing along the water. If the leg 
action is made narrow and without effort, a mere 
fluttering thrash, and the arms are bent a bit at 
the elbows in driving, the stroke is comfortable 
and places absolutely no strain on the swimmer. 

The racing stroke is featured by the same leg 
drive, each individual resorting to the number of 
beats adopted for free style swimming, but the 
arms work alternately, as in the crawl, and they 
reach out above head for the catch instead of start¬ 
ing their pull from the height of the shoulders. 

Each arm seeks comfortable full extension to 
enter the water and dips with hand a trifle out¬ 
side of the body line, then whips briskly down 
and back. The elbow is bent slightly after starting 
the propelling movement and the hand attains a 
depth of twelve to fifteen inches in mid-drive. 
The arm is straightened as the hand completes 



1 —Right arm starting drive. 2 —Right arm in mid-drive; left arm nearing catch. 3 —Right 
arm starting recovery; left arm catching. 4 —Right arm in recovery; left arm driving. 

PRACTICE MOVEMENTS FOR THE BACK STROKE. 






























Spalding's Athletic Library 49 

its semi-circle and comes to the surface near the 
thigh. On leaving the water the arm is raised 
over the leg of the same side and the hand turned 
palm out. Then the elbow starts toward the head, 
bending gradually until it nears the chest line. 
Here the hand begins to move upward and the 
forearm is made to circle over the elbow to reach 
out for the next stroke. It goes without saying 
that the pull should be energetic, the recovery very 
slow, and the propelling power applied in the 
same manner prescribed for the free style crawl. 

The position of the body, however, is different 
from that assumed in swimming free style. The 
head is not held erect, but lowered a little, chin 
toward chest. The body also breaks a trifle at 
waist and knees, instead of being outstretched, and 
it slants more sensibly from head to feet. This 
virtually reversed arch is necessary to plane 
adequately. If the head is thrown back, or the 
body held straight, the tendency will be to burrow 
instead of working up, to glide on the surface 
as much as possible, and the result will be increased 
resistance. Moreover, when the swimmer is too 
flat water will wash over the face, interfering with 
breathing. 

Normal respiration is possible in swimming 
on the back, for the mouth will be above water 


50 


Spalding's Athletic Library 


always if correct position is assumed. But it is 
well to time the inhaling and exhaling with the 
movements of the arms, as done in free style 
swimming, for this helps to give rhythmic action 
to the entire stroke. 

Beginners at the back stroke should follow the 
same plan recommended for the crawl and make 
it a practice to get the legs going before falling 
in with the arm movements. 

In back stroke competition the start is not 
made as in free style racing. Instead of standing 
on edge of pool and diving at the gun signal, the 
contestants enter the water and line up with backs 
to the course, feet against wall or float, both hands 
resting on side of starting platform, then get 
under way with a push-off. Incidentally, the 
rules require that both hands touch the platform 
until the signal to go is given. 

The back stroke turn is of particular importance, 
for most racing at this style of swimming is done 
in short pools, and the prospective competitor 
should take pains to perfect it before entering the 
field. Practice the turn very slowly at first. 
Swim gently toward the wall, twisting the head 
to note when you are near it. As soon as either 
hand is within reach of the turning upright, rest 


Spalding’s Athletic Library 51 

fingers or palm on wall and swing other arm 
over body, at the same time rolling the body and 
drawing up the knees. You will then be facing 
the wall, with feet raised and ready for a push-off. 
Touch wall with second hand, then push off 
vigorously. Glide for a few feet and resume 
swimming. 

People with very limber shoulders will glide 
best by thrusting both arms overhead in pushing 
off, but those less supple will find it advantageous 
to throw out one arm only and leave other trailing 
at the side on springing from the wall. 

The act of raising or turning the head to look 
for the turning board on approaching it is bound 
to disturb the position of the body a little and 
cause a slight check, so it is advisable to avoid it 
as much as possible. This may be done by noting 
how many strokes one takes at practice to cover 
the length of any given pool or course, then 
counting the strokes in racing, so that one need 
glance back only at the last moment. Another 
helpful habit is to note some mark on side of 
course which will tell without looking back when 
one nears the turn. These details may seem 
insignificant, but they will mean the difference 
between victory and defeat. 



1 Arms starting drive. 2 —Arms near end of drive. 3— Arms ready to start 
forward in recovery; legs opening for frog kick. 

PRACTICE MOVEMENTS FOR THE BREAST STROKE. 

















Spalding's Athletic Library 


53 


Chapter VII 

THE BREAST STROKE 

There is no service rendered by the breast stroke 
to girls and women which is not rendered more 
efficiently by other strokes. 

It has been demonstrated conclusively that the 
elementary crawl is far better suited to the de¬ 
velopment of elementary watermanship; we know 
that the modern strokes enable their devotees 
to gain greater speed and endurance out of the 
same amount of applied power; it can be shown 
convincingly that the latter strokes afford better 
means of physical culture, for they develop the 
body more thoroughly and symmetrically; we 
have evidence that the breast stroke is not neces¬ 
sary in lifesaving, for our leading lifesaving 
societies no longer use it for the rescue of the 
drowning. 

Strangely, under the circumstances, the stand¬ 
ard breast stroke, with its old-fashioned frog kick, 
remains a fixture in national and international 
competition, so that it is being perpetuated in 
spite of its shortcomings. But it is significant 



Inhaling. 2— Glide. 

BREAST STROKE. 














55 


Spalding's Athletic Library 

of its lack of efficiency that strict rules have had 
to be devised to keep contestants from departing 
from the standardized action, because any such 
departure is likely to increase speed and afford 
an unwarranted advantage over rivals who comply 
with requirements. 

The standard breast stroke, therefore, should 
be used only by girls and women who wish to enter 
breast stroke competition. A modernized style, 
however, with a scissoring leg drive replacing the 
frog kick, is at times pleasant to resort to if one 
is pleasure bathing and wants to paddle around 
idly, watching what is going on all about. 

Those who are anxious to master the standard 
style for racing should wait until they have learned 
and perfected the crawl before taking it up. If 
the frog kick is acquired first, great difficulty will 
be experienced in developing ability at the crawl 
leg drive and some swimmers never succeed in 
disposing completely of the frog kick action after 
learning it. On the other hand, an expert crawl 
swimmer will pick up the breast stroke in short 
order. 

In swimming the standard racing breast stroke 
the' head is held under, except at the end of the 
drive of the arms, when it is raised to inhale. 


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Spalding’s Athletic Library 

Starting position calls for body flat on the sur¬ 
face, face submerged; arms outstretched above 
head and resting on the water, palms down, 
thumbs touching; legs straight, close together, 
feet pointed. 

The arms drive first; hands are turned partly 
back to back, so that they form an angle of about 
120 degrees, then arms are pressed vigorously 
downward and outward, so that after each has 
described an arc of about one-sixth of a circle 
the hands will be about twelve inches below water 
level. Here the hands start inward, retaining 
pressure on the water. Next the elbows are moved 
close to the sides, the hands brought to the chest 
and turned palm down, fingers pointed ahead, 
then the arms are thrust forward to starting 
position. 

Meanwhile, the legs are set in motion as the 
arms complete their drive. Simultaneously the 
legs bend, the knees and feet draw apart. Then, 
with virtually a single movement, the legs are 
straightened out and whipped together vigorously. 
The kick should be given an opening of fifteen 
to twenty inches and, as usual, the bending and 
opening movements must be made very slowly 
to avoid unnecessary resistance. 


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Spalding's Athletic Library 

The kick should be timed so that the closing 
and propelling act occurs as the arms are about 
to attain full reach. Thus the body will be in 
starting position, forming a straight line from 
fingers to toes, directly after the kick, and the 
swimmer will be able to glide on the impetus 
acquired, while offering a minimum of resistance 
to the water. The greater distance one has to 
cover, the longer should be the gliding period. 

Breath is inhaled by mouth during the drive 
of the arms, when the downward pressure serves 
to raise the shoulders and enables the swimmer 
to bring the mouth above surface with a slight 
lift of the head. The head is lowered to normal 
position immediately after and the exhaling is 
done under water, through the nostrils by pre¬ 
ference. 

In breast stroke racing the shoulders must be 
held steady and the head neither turned to right 
or left, nor bent toward either shoulder. The 
legs must work in unison, so that they perform the 
same movements, keep on the same level and 
abstain from introducing any semblance of a 
scissor kick. Rolling the body, turning the head, 
or failing to execute the frog kick correctly will 
cause the contestant to be disqualified. 


58 Spalding's Athletic Library 

In practicing the breast stroke it is advisable 
to exaggerate the glide between strokes, otherwise 
there will be a tendency to rush the action under 
the excitement of competition. 

Prospective contestants need be warned that 
racing rules call for touching with both hands 
simultaneously in making the turns. 

The turn is effected by thrusting both arms 
a little to one side of the body as they are about 
to come in contact with the wall. When they 
touch, the head and shoulders are swung quickly 
to the side the arms are directed and simultane¬ 
ously the legs are drawn up and whipped around 
to rest on the wall. Then the hands are brought 
close to chest, palms down, the arms thrust for¬ 
ward, the head submerged and a vigorous push-off 
taken. Fully outstretched, head down, one glides 
a bit before bringing the arms into action once 


more. 


Spalding’s Athletic Library 


59 


Chapter VIII 

COMPETITIVE SWIMMING 

Competitive swimming for girls and women 
deserves to be encouraged widely, for it serves an 
excellent purpose. 

This purpose is set out so ably and clearly in 
an article published in the monthly magazine 
of the New York Women’s Swimming Associa¬ 
tion that we take the liberty to quote the following 
excerpt: 

“We favor competitive water sports be¬ 
cause they afford interesting and healthful 
pastime; because they serve as an incentive 
to practice regularly and keep in tiptop 
condition; because they engender confidence 
and self-reliance; because the training in¬ 
volved teaches the value of clean living and 
encourages abstinence from many things 
which are inadvisable, if not actually harmful; 
because, under proper guidance, they foster 
sportsmanship and the spirit of fair play, 
important factors in the molding of character. 



THE RACING START FOR COMPETITIVE SWIMMING. 



























61 


Spalding s Athletic Library 

It is our belief that any girl, any woman, will 

profit physically and mentally from participa- 

• y y 

tion. 

That covers the subject concisely, but thor¬ 
oughly. 

A mistake often incurred by parents or instruc¬ 
tors, however, is to allow girls, and very young 
girls in particular, to become contestants before 
they are fully prepared. This premature racing 
may lead to overstrain and so cause physical 
injury. 

While, in fact, very little effort is required to 
cover even long courses with a well mastered 
modern stroke, faulty swimming entails labored 
exertion at any distance. Therefore, although an 
immature girl who has gained proficiency may 
compete in perfect safety, the inexperienced or in¬ 
efficient swimmer, regardless of age, is apt to 
overdo things and suffer in consequence. A good 
rule to follow is to not sanction racing at all 
until the prospective contestant has demonstrated 
ability to swim 220 yards comfortably and without 
losing form. Once this test has been passed a 
candidate may start competing with confidence. 

Apart from the more important consideration 
of health, too, it needs be mentioned that to enter 


62 Spalding's Athletic Library 

the game unprepared is to court failure in the long 
run. Form is essential to the development of 
speed and endurance. One cannot possibly achieve 
real success with a poor stroke. 1 et, if one takes 
to racing with faulty methods there is very little 
hope of acquiring expert form later. The habit of 
speeding precludes the chance to correct faults; 
rather, it tends to emphasize them. 

Constant fast swimming is to be avoided even 
in training for racing. Occasional sprinting is 
necessary, but most of the work should be done 
at moderate pace. It is by covering middle dis¬ 
tance stretches at ease that one is best able to 
build up the swimming muscles, gain physical 
fitness and at the same time study every movement 
carefully and improve the stroke steadily. If, 
instead, one thrashes along at top speed exhaustion 
will come before swimming long enough to benefit 
the muscles materially and the rapidity of the 
action will afford no opportunity to pay close 
attention to form. 

The best system to follow in general training 
is to start each practice with a swim of 44 O to 1000 
yards at slow gait, take a rest, undertake a couple 
of short dashes, and end up with a few racing 
starts and turns. At the approach of an im- 


63 


Spalding’s Athletic Library 

portant contest, however, the programme should 
be altered according to circumstances. If a short 
race is in sight the middle distance stretch should 
be cut down and more sprinting introduced; if a 
long one is coming the endurance work naturally 
must be increased. 

It is neither necessary, nor advisable, to swim 
regularly at practice the particular distance for 
which one is training. The all-important thing 
is to get in good condition, strengthen the swim¬ 
ming muscles and perfect the stroke. That is 
what makes for efficiency at any distance. For 
the purpose, the system outlined is best. Now 
and then, of course, one should try at top speed 
the distance to be covered and it is then an ex¬ 
cellent idea to go a little further than required, but 
as a rule it is best to adhere to the schedule given. 

The rather prevalent belief that middle distance 
swimming blunts sprinting speed is totally without 
foundation. Nearly all our fastest women sprin¬ 
ters have been, and are, all-round contestants. 
One of the greatest lOO-yards woman swimmers 
the world has produced to date, Miss Ethelda 
Bleibtrey of the New York Women’s Swimming 
Association, covered one thousand yards almost 
daily when training for competition. 


64 Spalding s Athletic Library 

Nor is a swift stroke conducive to fast swim¬ 
ming. Young contestants, especially, are in¬ 
clined to think that wild action is necessary to 
attain great speed, and the contrary is the case. 
Slow arm movements, with a vigorous drive and a 
restful recovery, will give best results. Let us 
call attention to the fact that one of the most 
frequent comments seen in press accounts of 
record breaking feats is that the record beater 
swam so smoothly and easily that he, or she, 
did not seem to be trying. No rapid stroke looks 
smooth or easy. 

Time trials, in the accepted sense, should be few 
and far between. They serve no particular 
purpose and they have a disturbing influence on 
the mind of girl and women contestants. But 
swimming under the watch when going at moderate 
speed is decidedly profitable. It helps to develop 
ability to judge pace and this is one of the most 
valuable accomplishments of the competitor, for 
it provides knowledge of how fast a gait one may 
hold over any given course without fear of tiring 
before the end. 

It should be mentioned here that the perfect 
pace is that which distributes one’s individual 
fund of energy evenly throughout the course 
being covered, so that one reaches the finish unex- 


65 


Spalding’s Athletic Library 

hausted, yet without an excess of reserve power. 
It is through such a pace that a swimmer best 
exploits natural resources and makes the fastest 
times. Tricky contestants often try to get the 
best of a feared rival by sprinting and slowing up 
alternately, a method that at times succeeds 
against a nervous antagonist. But the system 
affects performances invariably. The swimmer 
who holds a steady gait will develop a maximum of 
speed and improve her chances always. 

It follows, naturally, that one should not be 
influenced by the actions of opponents in racing. 
Quite frequently some entrant will set out at an 
untenable pace and those who try to keep up 
with her inevitably must tire before completing 
the course. Again, a fast sprinter engaged in a 
middle or long distance race may hold back in 
the hope that the rest of the field will do the 
same and afford her the chance to win out in 
the final dash. But the girl who swims her own 
race, regardless of what others may do, never 
makes a mistake. She may not win, but she will 
display the best performance of which she is 
capable. 

Prospective contestants should not wait until 
they begin racing to gain proficiency in starting 
and turning. These are far more important 


66 


Spalding’s Athletic Library 

items in competitive swimming than novices 
realize. Indeed, a good or bad start very often 
decides the outcome of a sprint, while in pool 
racing one who is expert at the turns has an 
advantage which grows proportionately to the 
distance to be covered. It is no unusual thing to 
see one contestant gain consistently over another 
in actual swimming and lose the gain regularly 
at every turn. 

The starting dive should be made with a 
vigorous spring and the various movements must 
be timed accurately. Stand on the take-off with 
feet slightly apart and pointed forward, body 
bent a little at the waist, arms hanging loosely at 
the sides, hands closed. Now swing the arms 
backward and rise on tiptoe simultaneously. 
Then whip the arms forward and spring at the 
same time, aiming to strike as far out as possible. 
Hold up the head on leaving the board, but 
lower it on nearing the water and try to enter 
with body forming a straight line from tips of 
fingers to toes, hands touching. Do not hit flat, 
but avoid also going too deep. Arch the back 
as soon as submerged and start the feet going on 
a narrow crawl thrash, so as to come to the 
surface quickly and with good speed, then fall 
into stroke. 


67 


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The racing turn is made by approaching the 
wall with one arm extended in front, the other 
trailing at the side. When the hand stretched 
forward reaches the wall the palm is rested on it. 
Then, with a simultaneous movement, the knees 
are drawn up until the feet are close to the hips, 
the head is turned away from the outstretched 
arm and the body swung around, the forward 
arm helping by pushing off from the wall and the 
rear arm by taking a short stroke sideways and 
inward (under the body). As the feet spin 
around they are placed against the wall, ten or 
twelve inches below water level, then both hands 
are brought to chest, palms down, arms are 
thrust forward and legs push off vigorously. 
The swimmer glides motionless for a while, sets 
her feet in action, and follows with the arm stroke. 

It is best to learn to turn to either side, so 
that it will make little difference whether one 
happens to approach with right or left thrust 
forward, but a slight advantage is gained when 
the arm of the breathing side is in front, for 
one has a chance to take a good breath before 
turning and the position of the body makes for 
a quicker spin also. In a sprint race the glide 
after the turn should be short, but the longer the 
distance, the more it may be increased. 


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Chapter IX 

TRAINING FOR COMPETITION 

Strict dieting is not necessary in training for 
swimming. Plain, wholesome food may be par¬ 
taken of plentifully, for a little surplus weight 
increases buoyancy and makes for imperviousness 
to cold water, and is therefore actually an advan¬ 
tage. Girls and women, however, need be cau¬ 
tioned against their almost universal inclination 
to over-indulge in sweets. Ice cream and the 
more simple chocolate confections will do no 
harm if used in moderation, but sodas, sundaes, 
rich candy and fancy pastry should be taboo 
altogether. They play havoc with condition. 

Eating heartily shortly before entering competi¬ 
tion not only affects one’s efficiency in racing, 
but is extremely dangerous. Light, easily digested 
food may be taken no less than two hours in 
advance, but only in small quantity. 

Sleep aplenty is a necessity to anyone under¬ 
going physical training and girls require at least 
eight hours in every twenty-four, but will profit 
by enjoying nine regularly. Few things impair 
physical fitness more than insufficient sleep. 


69 


Spa!ding's Athletic Library 

A general complaint which must be guarded 
against is worrying in anticipation of a contest. 
Even the most experienced and mature competitors 
are inclined to„ fret at the approach of an im¬ 
portant race and some girls allow themselves to 
grow so nervous and restless that they waste 
strength and energy quite unnecessarily. The 
remedy is to keep the mind off the coming event 
by engaging in occupations of sufficient interest 
to prove absorbing and seek to be busy constantly 
with work or recreation. Idleness is chiefly 
responsible for worry. 

The belief seems widespread that one should 
refrain from all physical exercise the day before a 
contest, in order to store up vitality for the mor¬ 
row’s race. But the wisdom of this practice is 
open to question. Punishing work should be 
avoided, of course, but a comfortable, easy swim 
will prove more beneficial than harmful, not only 
on the eve but on the very day of the event. It 
will help to limber up the muscles without drawing 
on reserve power in the least degree. 

Regular massage serves no particular purpose 
where girl and women swimmers are concerned. 
They do not need it, for they are supple by nature 
and swimming tends to make them more so. On 
the other hand, if they acquire the habit of being 


70 Spalding's Athletic Library 

massaged, they eventually come to think they 
require it, so that they are upset mentally when 
they cannot get it. A plain rubdown to activate 
the circulation before a race, or after swimming 
in chill water, should be the extent of a woman 
contestant’s indulgence in this line. 


Spalding’s Athletic Library 


71 


Chapter X 

ADVICE TO THE AMBITIOUS 

A bit of advice which needs be given to girls 
is to not lose their sense of proportion when 
success begins to crown their efforts in competi¬ 
tion. Water sports are most enjoyable and 
profitable, providing one follows them in the 
proper spirit. But if undue importance is attached 
to them, so that victory becomes the paramount 
consideration and defeat leaves a feeling of dis¬ 
appointment and humiliation, then the zest goes 
out of the game and it no longer represents pastime 
and recreation, as it should. 

It is natural to like to win. Moreover, every 
contestant should devote her efforts, both in 
practice and in competition, tc achieve success. 
But the girl will derive the greatest pleasure 
and the most benefit from racing, who, having 
done her best, is able to accept victory modestly 
and defeat smilingly, taking each as part of the 
game and looking on the sport as merely interest¬ 
ing play. Parents can do a great deal to help 
on this point. All too often, unfortunately, they 


72 Spalding's Athletic Library 

are so eager to see their daughters win, so unrea¬ 
sonable or downhearted when they fail to do so, 
that they influence the youngsters’ attitude most 
unfavorably, at times to the extent of making the 
sport a task instead of play. 

This is the more regrettable in that it is not 
within the scope of every girl to become a cham¬ 
pion, nor even a star of exceptional ability. In 
swimming, as in every other branch of athletics, 
champions are born, not made. Especial natural 
gifts, not in build and strength, but in waterman¬ 
ship, are essential to the development of a cham¬ 
pion. These gifts are vouchsafed to a very few 
only and all the coaching, all the acquired skill in 
the world, will not make champions of the others. 

But let none be discouraged if she fails to attain 
front rank in short order. Frequently latent 
ability does not develop at once. Usually it takes 
years for a potential champion to learn to exploit 
her natural resources. Moreover, though it is not 
within the ken of all to become topnotchers, any 
normal girl or woman may acquire sufficient skill 
to enjoy competition, win prizes and laurels occa¬ 
sionally and improve her health and physique 
the while. Practice and perseverance will accom¬ 
plish this much every time. 


Spalding’s Athletic Library 


73 


Chapter XI 
LEARN TO FLOAT 

One of the most useful accomplishments in the 
way of watermanship is skill in floating. It is of 
inestimable value in emergencies. 

Whether, in fact, a swimmer tires when far 
from shore, is seized with cramps, caught in a 
current or tide too strong to overcome, accidentally 
thrown into the water fully dressed, or otherwise 
placed in danger, floating will go far toward 
ensuring safety. 

Nearly all girls and women are naturally 
buoyant—lighter than water—and will master 
easily the art of motionless floating, while the very 
few who lack buoyancy will find it equally easy 
to support themselves by means of an effortless 
flutter of the feet or a sculling, rotating motion 
of the hands. It will be seen, therefore, that by 
merely assuming supine position when danger 
threatens, any girl or woman will be able to rest in 
comparative comfort, mouth above water, breath¬ 
ing unimpaired, and either take time to regain her 
Strength, work out a cramp, discard hindering 



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75 


Spalding’s Athletic Library 

garments ,to prepare for swimming, or await 
assistance without waste of energy. 

If people would only resort to floating in case 
of danger, then proceed to size up the situa¬ 
tion calmly, many lives which are lost would be 
spared. But all too often the one thought is to 
fight desperately, to use every ounce of energy 
in the effort to save themselves, and in the frantic 
struggle one very soon becomes exhausted and 
helpless. Then there is no hope. 

To learn to float is a simple matter. Seek a 

place where the water is a little more than waist- 

deep, throw out the arms cross fashion, at right 
angles to the shoulders, then lean back slowly. 
When the head nears the water take a deep breath 
and hold it. Then push off easily from the 
bottom, so as to impart slight headway to the 

body, raise the legs and stretch out flat on the 

surface. 

In the early attempts, at least, the change of 
position from standing to floating will probably 
cause you to sink a trifle and the face will sub¬ 
merge, but it is only a momentary drop and if 
you lie still the body will promptly recover its 
balance and bring the face above surface, so don’t 
allow the brief ducking to bother you. Just hold 


76 


Spalding's Athletic Library 

your breath for a few seconds and you will soon 
be floating well up, able to resume normal respira¬ 
tion. 

Should the feet show a tendency to sink move 
the arms slowly upward, keeping them on the 
surface, until the hands are higher than the head. 
This distributes the weight more evenly on either 
side of the center of buoyancy, the lungs, and 
helps to bring up the legs. If the feet still work 
downward spread the knees apart and raise them 
toward the body, thus establishing an even better 
balance. But most girls and women will float 
readily in the position first mentioned and it 
happens frequently, too, that those whose feet 
are inclined to sink at the start, are able, after 
effecting the change prescribed and allowing the 
body to settle, to return gradually to original 
posture and retain their equilibrium. 

Muscular tension should be avoided in floating 
and it is advisable while learning to keep the 
lungs well filled with air by breathing inter¬ 
mittently. This is done by exhaling and inhaling 
rapidly as soon as the body adjusts itself, after 
first assuming supine position, then holding the 
breath for a while and repeating the double 
respiratory act quickly at intervals. 


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Spalding's Athletic Library 

The very few girls and women who are not 
buoyant, possibly two or three in a hundred, will 
find that their feet sink even when their arms are 
above head and their legs open and drawn up. 
But they need only move the feet up and down, 
alternately and easily, to overcome their lack of 
buoyancy. The narrowest and gentlest motion 
will suffice to keep the legs near the surface. 

After learning to float it is important to learn 
to turn supine from swimming position. To get 
the knack of it push off from the wall, as indicated 
in the directions for preliminary swimming, then 
press downward with either arm, as if starting a 
driving movement for swimming, and simultane¬ 
ously throw the other arm out, up and over the 
body with a wide, circling sweep. The pressure 
of the first arm will prevent the shoulder on that 
side from submerging excessively and the sweep 
of the other will roll you over. Keep mouth closed 
while making the turn, of course, and hold the 
breath until the body has settled to floating. 

Coming to the question of undressing in the 
water, it needs be pointed out that, contrary to 
popular belief, clothes do not drag down. They 
impede swimming, it goes without saying, but 
if one takes to floating they actually afford sup- 


78 


Spalding’s Athletic Library 

port. Shoes or boots are a drag, but other wear- 
ing apparel will help to support temporarily, 
because air chambers form between body and 
fabric, providing quite a bit of buoyancy. It is 
obviously wise, therefore, to retain clothing for a 
while, if thrown into the water in street attire, 
and take time to think matters over in floating 
position before proceeding to disrobe. 

Should circumstances then make it advisable 
to start swimming, begin by disposing of the upper 
garments. Discard a coat, jacket, sweater or 
waist by lying on the back and working it off 
one shoulder at a time, then passing both arms 
behind you and using each hand to pull down the 
opposite sleeve. Shed skirt or petticoat by un¬ 
fastening at the waist thrusting it down to knees 
with hands, then kicking it off. Remove footgear 
by raising each knee separately to chest, which 
will bring the foot within reach of hands. 

But whatever course you may decide upon 
eventually, remember always that when facing 
danger in the water the first thing to do is to 
turn to floating and give yourself an opportunity 
to think over the situation while at rest. 


Spalding s Athletic Library 


79 


Chapter XI l 
LIFESAVING 

To prepare thoroughly for the great work of 
lifesaving it is advisable to undergo a complete 
course of instruction, including practical tests 
with living subjects. A number of societies and 
lifesaving corps hold such courses constantly and 
every girl and woman who is able to avail herself 
of these instructions should take advantage of the 
chance thereby afforded to gain full knowledge 
of up-to-date methods of rescue and resuscitation. 

Many, however, lack either the time or the 
opportunity to attend these standard courses and 
it will be our aim to outline simple and funda¬ 
mental rules which will enable any fairly good 
swimmer who reads them retentively to take care 
of the victim of a drowning accident, under 
ordinary conditions at least. 

The first thing which needs be impressed on the 
prospective lifesaver is that nothing is gained by 
haste. Although every second is precious when 
someone is in danger, calm deliberation will accom¬ 
plish more than unthinking hurry. It is folly 


80 Spalding's Athletic Library 

to undertake a rescue fully dressed, for instance. 
It takes but a few instants to remove shoes and 
outer clothing and the time thus lost will more 
than be made up by the greater speed attained 
in swimming and the increased ease in carrying 
the subject. While undressing, try to size up the 
situation, noting if the accident has been seen by 
others and if you can count on assistance, observing 
whether tide or current is running and in what 
direction, figuring on the best place to land, and 
so on. But never lose sight of the drowning per¬ 
son, or of the spot where last seen. The tradition 
that people rise three times to the surface before 
sinking finally has no foundation in fact. They 
may rise but once, or a dozen times. So don’t 
allow your attention to be drawn away. 

Another important thing to remember is that 
human strength is limited and must be husbanded 
carefully if one is to be of any use to those one 
seeks to succor. This should be borne in mind 
always, for the natural inclination on seeing a 
fellowbeing in danger is to go to his or her assist¬ 
ance with all possible speed. Yet the would-be 
rescuer who swims out too fast will reach the 
drowning person tired and breathless, in no con¬ 
dition to help efficiently, while the one who main- 


81 


Spalding’s Athletic Library 

t s 

tains a moderate pace will be ready to tend 
adequate aid immediately. 

The approach of a person in danger should be 
made from behind whenever possible, for this 
minimizes greatly the chance of being seized and 
it enables one also to apply the best holds for 
carrying and controlling the subject. 

The easiest way to support a person completely 
exhausted, unconscious, or with enough sense 
not to struggle, is to grasp firmly the bathing suit 
or clothing between the shoulder blades, press 
with the knee against the lower body to bring the 
subject flat on the surface, face up, then do the 
towing by swimming on the side, with carrying 
arm fully extended behind. A slow scissor kick 
and a downward stroke of the free arm should be 
used for propulsion. 

In case the subject has no clothing on the upper 
body the hand of the carrying arm is cupped and 
placed on the chin, but care must then be taken to 
avoid pressing against the throat, or respiration 
may be cut off. 

An inexperienced rescuer should not close in 
with a person struggling violently, but keep watch 
a few feet away until the latter’s own efforts have 
caused exhaustion. This may seem somewhat 



1 —Preventive break; thrusting arm of droivning person over head and pass¬ 
ing under to secure backlock. 2 —Breaking a wrist-hold. 3 —Slipping jrom 
under a neck-hold. 

LIFESAVING—PRACTICE FOR BREAKING THE HOLD OF A 

DROWNING PERSON. 






















83 


Spalding’s Athletic Library 

inhuman, yet it is the wisest course to follow, 
since the lives of both may be endangered other¬ 
wise. 

It happens occasionally, though, that one is 
forced by circumstances into close quarters with a 
panic-stricken subject and cannot avoid a personal 
encounter. For this eventuality there has been 
evolved an effective method to elude capture 
Try it some time with a friend, so as to gain work¬ 
ing knowledge of it. When the struggler reaches 
out to seize you, place your hand of the opposite 
side (left for right, right for left) under the out¬ 
stretched upper arm, push yourself under water 
from this point of leverage, then swing the attacker 
around by jerking the clutched arm over your 
head. Still retaining hold of the arm, come to the 
surface and you will find the back of the latter’s 
head toward you, in the wanted position for you 
to use either arm in securing a necklock. 

Should you be caught before you can resort to 
this preventive measure here is how to proceed: 

If you are seized by the wrists lift both arms 
simultaneously and rapidly, then whip them down 
hard, at the same time twisting the hands force¬ 
fully inward, against the captor’s thumbs. 

When grasped around the neck, regardless of 
whether it is from the front or rear, thrust one 


84 Spalding’s Athletic Library 

hand under each imprisoning arm, so that it 
will rest between forefinger and thumb, swing 
your head back and forth energetically a few times 
to loosen the hold, then slip from under by 
thrusting both arms upward suddenly. Should a 
leglock obstruct the underwater opening, however, 
you will have to employ different methods, accord¬ 
ing to whether you face the subject or are held 
from behind. In the former case throw back 
your shoulders and thrash around until you have 
succeeded in prying out one arm, then rest the 
freed hand on attacker’s face, palm over mouth, 
fingers on either side of nostrils, and apply strong, 
steady pressure. The hand will close the breath¬ 
ing channels, besides forcing the head backward 
more and more, enabling you to break away very 
soon. 

If the hold is from behind—neck and leglocks 
combined—you will have stumbled into the most 
dangerous grip which can be secured in the water. 
Your best chance rests in seizing the tackler’s 
thumbs in each hand if possible, the wrists other¬ 
wise, trying to tear them apart, then butting the 
grappler hard with the back of your head, and 
immediately using all energy available in a quick, 
determined effort to twist your body around. 


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S pal ding s Athletic Library 

Once face to face with your assailant the method 
already described will serve you adequately. 

Although it is essential to provide information 
concerning the foregoing breaks, it must be added 
that one is very seldom called upon to use them. 
Drowning people thrash around wildly and en¬ 
deavor to clutch anyone who comes within their 
reach, but their efforts are headless and clumsy, 
so that they rarely manage to secure a dangerous 
hold. Moreover, a careful rescuer has no diffi¬ 
culty in eluding them altogether. 

It is well, nevertheless, to be on the safe side 
always and handle prudently a person who shows 
the least inclination to struggle. A carrying hold 
which will prevent a subject from turning around 
after being thrust into supine position is secured 
by passing the hands under the latter’s arms and 
clamping them on the chest; or one may gain 
equal power of control by grasping the two arms 
near the shoulders. The propelling is then done 
by rolling one’s body over a little and using the 
scissor kick, which affords greater forward impetus 
than the frog kick. 

If the drowning person has sunk by the time you 
reach the spot where last seen, look for bubbles, 
as they often indicate the position of the submerged 



1 —The easiest ivay to support and, tow a drowning person. 2 —Supporting subject by means 
of the chin-carry. 3 —Carry for a struggling victim. 

LIFESAVING—METHODS OF CARRY IN A DROWNING ACCIDENT. 














87 


S pal din g ’ s A t hie tic Libra ry 

body. In instituting a search dive from this spot 
and work around in gradually widening circles. 
On finding the subject seize the clothing at the 
back of the neck, the hair, or the chin, then swim 
to the surface with short scissor kicks and down¬ 
ward strokes of the free arm. 

Never use violence with the drowning. The 
ignorant often advocate knocking out a struggling 
subject, but the method is brutal, totally unneces¬ 
sary and extremely dangerous. Far better to let 
the struggler become exhausted and helpless as 
one stands by. Then unconsciousness comes 
through asphyxiation and no injury is sustained. 
But in the condition brought about by the ordeal 
of drowning all the organs are under terrific strain 
and a severe blow may cause permanent injury, or 
even prove fatal. 

On reaching shore with the victim of a drowning 
accident it is often advisable and occasionally 
necessary to carry the unconscious person some 
distance on land. Use then the following method: 

Kneel beside the subject, facing head. Grasp 
latter’s left wrist with your right hand, pass your 
left arm around subject’s neck and lift to sitting 
position. Bend forward and slip head under 
subject’s left armpit, then lower your left arm 





P'W 




1 —Carrying unconscious subject to land. 2— Applying the Shafer or prone 
method of artificial respiration. 

LIFESAVING—HOW TO HANDLE THE VICTIM AFTER 
LEAVING THE WATER. 


















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Spalding's Athletic Library 

from neck to waist. Draw body toward you 
until its weight rests on your shoulder and back, 
then shift left arm from waist to knees and rise 
slowly. In this position it is possible to carry 
comfortably a person heavier than oneself. Also, 
the action of walking will cause intermittent 
pressure on the subject’s respiratory organs and 
this results at times in restoring natural breathing. 

If the occasion comes to use one hand, pass 
your left arm in between or around subject’s 
knees and grasp latter’s left wrist with your left 
hand, freeing the right. 

When the landing is effected at a shallow beach 
the subject may be picked up with greater ease 
in waist deep water, for then one avoids having 
to kneel down to raise them on shoulders. 

Immediately upon reaching terra firma with an 
unconscious person seek the best spot available 
and proceed to operate artificial respiration, 
keeping onlookers from crowding around. 

Lay down subject in prone position, face turned 
to any stirring breeze, head resting on arm, 
disposed in a manner to serve as support for it; 
wipe mouth clean of mucus and phlegm. Next 
kneel astride of or beside subject, facing head, 
and placing your hands on lower back, so that 


90 Spalding's Athletic Library 

thumbs will be near spine and lingers spread over 
floating ribs on both sides. Then press down 
firmly for three or four seconds and release sud¬ 
denly, repeating the movements steadily. The 
first act will constrict the lungs and force out 
vitiated air, the sudden release will cause the ribs 
to spring back into normal position and the lungs 
to expand, drawing in fresh, oxygenated air. 
The aim is to imitate natural respiration, so the 
movements should be a little more rapid for women 
than men, quicker for children than adults. 

And do not become discouraged if the subject 
fails to respond at once to treatment. There are 
cases on record of people having revived after 
being under water half an hour and unconscious 
several hours. So there is good reason to be 
hopeful and persevere when one’s efforts do not 
meet with prompt success. 

After the subject has been restored to natural 
breathing it is advisable to remove all wet clothing, 
rub Tody thoroughly dry, and, if possible, make 
patient take a good rest under warm clothing or 
blankets, in a well ventilated place. Rescued 
people usually object to this, but there is danger 
of ill efiects for some time after a person has 
undergone the experience of drowning and caution 
is the part of wisdom. 


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Severe chills and general debility frequently 
follow the revival of one rendered unconscious by 
drowning and when facilities are at hand it is a 
good plan to place hot water bottles at feet, 
abdomen and armpits, then administer restora¬ 
tives every ten or fifteen minutes. Small doses 
of hot milk or broth, diluted brandy or whiskey, 
will best serve the purpose. 

Should such facilities be lacking, however, gentle 
massage will help greatly to activate blood circu¬ 
lation and produce warmth. There should be no 
hard kneading of muscles, but mostly friction 
along the veins, toward the heart, and firm cir¬ 
cular rubbing at soles of feet and palms of hands. 

And now a word of advice to all fair swimmers. 
Never persist in fighting a tide or current when you 
feel that it is beginning to get the best of you. 
That is how many cases of drowning are brought 
about. People feel themselves being carried 
away and instinctively increase their efforts to 
try and reach a place of security. They do not 
stop to think that a slight change of course usually 
will enable them to cut the current diagonally, 
instead of bucking it, and land without effort 
further up or down, at no greater inconvenience 
than to walk back a little way along the shore. 
Instead, they keep on battling until their strength 


92 Spalding's Athletic Library 

gives out. Then they are lost, unless someone is 
close by to offer assistance. 

Let us recall, too, before closing this chapter, 
that floating is one of the greatest means of 
guarding against the danger of drowning. When 
you are faced with any problem in the water, 
do not fail to turn to floating and give yourself a 
chance to consider the situation in comparative 
comfort. 


Spalding's Athletic Library 


93 


Chapter XIII 
FANCY DIVING 

Among the water sports open to girls and women 
none offers more pleasing opportunities for exer¬ 
cise, physical improvement and recreation than 
fancy diving. 

It provides inexhaustible variety, for there is 
always some new feat to learn when the last one 
has been mastered; it serves to develop the 
entire body in nice symmetry; it affords the 
chance to enjoy the zest of competition if one 
likes; it is the means of giving entertainment to 
others, for a clever exhibition of diving proves 
attractive to all. 

Moreover, members of the fair sex are especially 
fitted to attain proficiency, for the great majority 
are unusually supple of muscle and naturally 
graceful of movement. Young girls, in particular, 
will gain skill rapidly under competent guidance, 
but the sport may be recommended generally, 
for even mature women will acquire with practice 
sufficient ability to derive from diving both pastime 
and physical benefit. 



CORRECT POSITION OF BODY FOR FANCY DIVING. 



























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The novitiate is somewhat arduous, perhaps. 
One is bound to receive quite a few slaps and jolts 
in the early stages, so it has become a common say¬ 
ing that only people with plenty of grit make good 
divers. But, while this is true, it is equally true 
that grit of this brand usually is developed in diving. 

An expert instructor will see that a beginner 
does all preliminary work from a very low board 
and attempts only the easiest dives at first, thus 
avoiding bruising falls. As a result the new 
pupil becomes accustomed to a bit of knocking 
about while mastering the rudiments and by the 
time she is ready to try more difficult dives she 
not only knows how to compose for the entry, 
but she is somewhat hardened to punishment. 
The important thing is to acquire good form in 
the simplest dives before giving thought to others, 
that the latter may be approached with the feeling 
of confidence imparted by knowledge of the 
elementary principles of body control. 

The plain front and back dives should be per¬ 
fected to start with, for they teach the two styles 
of head entry and are fundamental in all variety 
diving accordingly. It is essential to learn to 
execute them correctly by instinct, for in studying 
the more complicated feats there is no time to 






1 —Plain front dive. 2—Swan dive. 3 —Straightening out for entry into 
water. 4 —Front jack-knife. 

DIVING. 









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Spalding's Athletic Library 

consider all details and the body must be adjusted 
mechanically and unconsciously for the entry on 
nearing the water. 

Plain Front Dive 

In trying for the first time the plain front dive, 
or header, you should step to the edge of the pool, 
bend forward from the waist, hold arms in front 
and pointed downward. Then lean over gradu¬ 
ally, until you overbalance and drop. Do not 
jump, or raise the head in dropping, for either 
act will cause you to land flat, the usual experience 
of beginners. After a few trials, however, you 
may begin to put a little spring into the dive, 
then by degrees endeavor to conform more and 
more with standard requirements. 

To comply eventually with these requirements 
assume upright position on tiptoe, head erect, 
chest out, hands at thighs, feet close together. 
Swing arms out and back a little, then throw them 
forward and up, springing vigorously at the same 
time. Get good height in the leap and keep head 
well raised, arching the back, straightening the 
legs and pointing the feet. Hold this position 
until you are about to strike the water, then lower 
head a trifle and stiffen all muscles, aiming to 
break the surface with body forming a clean line 


98 


Spalding’s Athletic Library 

from finger tips to toes. Seek to enter at an angle 
of 75 to 85 degrees and do not allow the muscles to 
relax until the feet are submerged. Then lift head 
and arms, hollow the back and come up. 

The most common faults incurred in this dive 
are: Failing to take off with vigor; leaping straight 
out, instead of rising high also; lowering head in 
springing, or too soon during flight; bending at 
waist, knees or ankles while in the air; holding 
arms far apart; spreading fingers; opening legs; 
striking water at a slant or throwing over back¬ 
ward; breaking at knees or waist during entry. 

In springboard competition the plain front dive 
is executed by preference with a running start, 
to give it more action, but in high diving, when a 
stationary platform is used, it is performed both 
running and standing. 

For a running start the entire length of the board 
or platform should be covered with short steps, 
body and head erect, arms at the sides. From 
springboard, however, the last step is made high, 1 
drawing legs together, so as to strike end of board 
forcefully with both feet, to secure great height; 
while in stationary platform work the leap usually 
is made from one foot only, striding, in order to 
gain both height and distance. 


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The standard front dive may be executed with 
arms thrust forward and close together through¬ 
out the flight, or in swan position. The latter is 
considered the better method by most judges 
and it is advisable to use it in competition. It 
calls for the arms to be thrown out at the sides, 
virtually cross fashion, in leaving the board, 
and held thus until the body curves downward 
and straightens in descent, when arms are brought 
together above head for the entry. 

Plain Back Dive 

The plain back dive is started with shoulders 
turned to the water, standing on tiptoe, carriage 
erect, arms either at sides, akimbo, or thrust out 
in front at the height to the shoulders, palms down. 
Again the spring must be made up, rather than 
out. The arms are whipped over head in leaping 
and the body is made to curve in flight by a quick 
throwback of head and arms after attaining full 
height from the leap. The entry should be 
practically perpendicular, once more with body 
in shaftlike position. 

Prevalent faults to avoid in the back dive are: 

Dropping off the board slowly, or j umping outward, 
instead of springing energetically upward; sagging 


100 Spalding’s Athletic Library 

at shoulders or waist and bending at knees or 
ankles in flight; sliding into water at an acute or 
obtuse angle; breaking anywhere during entry. 

The essential requirement in learning the back 
dive is fearlessness. One who goes at it gamely, 
remembering to throw back head and arms im¬ 
mediately after leaving the board, usually will be 
able to make a fairly good dive at the very first 
attempt. But a faint hearted effort, with the diver 
attempting to get a glimpse of the water and try¬ 
ing to guard against an awkward fall, almost in¬ 
variably results in disturbing the position of the 
body and causes a bad landing. 

Front Jack-Knife 

The front jack-knife should be approached 
next. It is a forward dive, in which the body 
folds in two from the waist while in midair, then 
opens for a vertical head entry. It is imperative 
to attain exceptionally good height in this dive, 
or the jacking must be hurried and it is then 
difficult to compose properly for the entry. 
Spring up with force, begin to bend on leaving 
the board, keep head erect the while, hold the 
position for a moment when fully doubled up, 
then whip the feet upward and arch the back with 


Spalding’s Athletic Library 101 

snap, aiming to enter at right angles to the water, 
body forming a straight line. 

It is prescribed for the jack-knife that one strike 
the water close to the take-off—the rules name six 
feet as the outward limit—but the novice should 
not try this for a while. Until knowledge of the 
dive has been acquired, there is danger of miscal¬ 
culating the distance and colliding with the end 
of the board in dropping, so it is well to be prudent. 

Back Jack-Knife 

The back jack-knife is started facing away from 
the water and naturally entails springing back 
and up in taking off. As the backward leap is 
rarely used, except in diving, this jack-knife is 
difficult to learn and it is a good plan to jump side¬ 
ways, as well as far out, in the early trials, in 
order to make sure of clearing the board in descent. 
For the rest, the folding is done as in the front 
jack-knife and the entry is similar also, though 
made with back to the board, of course. 

The most general fault in both jack-knives is 
drawing up knees and raising toes in folding. 
There is nothing which affects form more unfavor¬ 
ably and every effort should be made to keep legs 
straight and feet pointed. Those who experience 


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Spalding's Athletic Library 

trouble in doing this will profit by indulging often 
in bending exercises, standing on tiptoe and 
stooping to touch floor with fingers, but holding 
legs rigid throughout. This will give limberness 
to the renal muscles and help materially. Other 
faults which must be guarded against are: Lowering 
the head in jacking, failing to fold completely, 
striking too far out, entering at a slant and open¬ 
ing or crooking the legs in gliding into the water. 

When the jack-knives are added to the repertory 
you may take up the back somersault, popularly 
known under the name of back flip. It is an 
easy dive to master if you tackle it with confidence. 
Stand on tiptoe, shoulders to water, arms thrust 
forward at height of shoulders. Whip down 
arms a trifle for impetus, throw them up vigorously 
and at the same time jerk head backward and 
leap. Then bring legs around by bending quickly 
at waist and enter feet first, aiming to land up¬ 
right, with body straight and arms at sides. 

Front Somersault 

The front somersault, which follows in order, 
is not learned so readily as the back flip, and it is 
advisable, if possible, to try it first on the sus¬ 
pended harness used at many gymnasiums to 
teach tumbling. This land schooling has the 


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Spalding s Athletic Library 

advantage of making clear the functions of the 
various parts ol the muscular system, while 
eliminating all chance ol receiving punishment in 
striking poorly. Once these functions are under¬ 
stood the dive presents no difficulty. 

There are two ways to execute the front somer¬ 
sault dive: By tuck and by lay out. The tucking 
process is the easier and should be favored by 
novices. 

Standing erect on board, raise hands a little 
above and forward of shoulders, holding elbows 
close to sides, but a few inches in front of body 
line. In taking off, spring up and out, immedi¬ 
ately lowering head (chin on chest) and simultane¬ 
ously whip hands downward, elbows backward, 
and draw up knees, thus gathering the body into 
a ball with a single, combined movement. The 
quick rolling up (tucking) of the body in this 
manner will cause it to spin around. You then 
open out by raising head, distending legs and 
straightening back, again simultaneously, so as 
to enter upright, feet first, arms at sides. 

Having learned the front somersault by tuck 
you should proceed to practice it in jack-knife 
position, bending at waist but not at knees, 
and lastly in full layout, with body completely 
outstretched throughout. This, by the way, is 


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the correct and advanced method for performing 
the back somersault also. 

The logical sequence to the front somersault 
is the front one-and-a-half, in which the rotary 
action of the former is carried further, so as to 
enter head first. Otherwise the process is virtu¬ 
ally the same. Likewise, the front one-and-a-half 
may be executed by tuck, in jack-knife position 
and by layout. From springboard the latter 
method is hardly possible, as height is necessary 
to go through the gyrations properly, and even 
in high diving experts are inclined to favor the 
tuck nowadays, advocating a rapid spin around 
and the prompt straightening of the body there¬ 
after, for as long a descent as possible in out¬ 
stretched poise. 

In learning the front somersaults the timing 
of the opening movements is extremely hard to 
estimate accurately and it is of great help to have 
someone stand by and shout “Now!” as soon as 
the body has reached the position and point at 
which it should unfold. 

Diving Twists 

Diving twists are effected by rolling the body 
laterally in midair and serve to add difficulty and 


Spalding’s Athletic Library 105 

attractiveness to any dive in which they are intro¬ 
duced, plain or fancy. The half twist is a semi¬ 
revolution which causes the diver to secure a 
front entry from a backward spring or vice versa; 
the full twist is a complete revolution, which 
returns the diver to starting position for the entry. 

The head should be the chief factor in imparting 
the twisting momentum, though the arms may 
help, but the rest of the body must be used very 
little, or its position is likely to be disturbed, 
spoiling the appearance of the entire dive. No 
twist should be started until the feet have left the 
board. 

Other Dives 

Dives more difficult than the foregoing, such 
as the Flying Dutchman, Dutchman Somersault, 
One-and-a-half Back Somersault, etc., contain an 
element of danger for the inexperienced and it is 
advisable for girls and women to attempt them 
only under the supervision of a competent in¬ 
structor, able to offer expert guidance. 

Useful Hints 

A fact which all divers, but particularly novices, 
should keep in mind always, is that the head, 
because of its weight and position, affects to a 


106 Spalding's Athletic Library 

very large extent the flight of the body through 
the air and should be used as the principal means 
of control. Its correct usage will go far toward 
developing proficiency in plain or fancy diving, for 
the body will follow its every movement. Not 
only is the head primarily instrumental in per¬ 
forming the somersaults and twists, but it can 
be used most effectively to correct any faulty 
position incurred by the diver in midair. And 
it needs be mentioned while on the subject that 
much poor diving is due directly to the natural 
inclination to look down and lower the head in 
taking off. It should be erect always in springing. 

Another thing which should be emphasized is 
that bold and vigorous action is the keynote 
of excellence in plain and fancy diving. Girls 
and women all too often have the tendency to 
hit the board lightly, without energy, and their 
work lacks height and freedom in consequence. 

1 his is looked upon as poor form by experts. 

Fair devotees who would become able high 
divers should prepare for it by-taking first a reg¬ 
ular course from the low springboard. It not only 
is much easier to acquire skill when the drop to 
the water is small, but there is danger of serious 
injury in diving from a height before one has 


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Spalding s Athletic Library 

mastered the principles. And even a good spring¬ 
board diver should increase the height gradually, 
in order to gain thorough knowledge of the high 
diving entry and recovery before risking work 
from a lofty take-off. 

In a long descent, in fact, the body acquires 
so much speed that it strikes the water with great 
violence and it is necessary to be ready for the im¬ 
pact, or the arms will be thrust apart irresistibly, 
possibly thrown out of their shoulder sockets, 
and the head dealt a stunning blow. The way 
to avoid this is to lock the thumbs securely while 
in flight, to set all muscles rigidly on nearing the 
water, to hold the head directlybetween the shield¬ 
ing arms in striking. But it requires practice to 
accomplish these things mechanically, as one must 
for absolute safety. 

The recovery of the diver after the entry is 
important also, for a quick change of position to 
come to the surface may cause the back to suffer 
a severe strain if not effected accurately. The 
body should remain straight and rigid until the 
feet are submerged. Then the head and arms 
are raised gently and the legs allowed to relax 
and open, so that the upward curve will not be too 
swift. 


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Chapter XIV 

COLLEGIATE AND SCHOLASTIC SWIM¬ 
MING FOR GIRLS 

One of the most noteworthy phases in the 
astonishing development of the art of natation 
in the Linked States has been the great and sudden 
growth of interest in water sports at our universi¬ 
ties and schools for girls. 

Perhaps the importance attained by competitive 
swimming in the field of collegiate and scholastic 
athletics for men is in some measure responsible. 
The fact that several of the leading universities 
have raised swimming to the rank of a major 
sport, awarding for it the coveted block letter, 
and that through the country aquatic activities 
play a conspicuous role in Varsity and high school 
games nowadays, may have borne some influence 
in the matter. But the chief factor undoubtedly 
has been full realization on the part of those in 
charge of our institutions of learning for girls that 
swimming is the means of protecting and saving 
life, as well as a most valuable medium in physical 
culture, and that competition aflords the greatest 


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Spalding s Athletic Library 

incentive to gain proficiency first, then to indulge 
in regular and faithful practice. 

The evidence of this is to be found in the 
building of natatoriums at most of our colleges 
and schools lor girls, the virtually universal 
establishment of swimming courses as a compul¬ 
sory feature of the curriculum and the marked 
change in the general attitude toward com¬ 
petition. 

Time was, and in the very near past, when 
faculties of institutions for women looked with 
disfavor on intramural water sports even. Now, 
instead, class and interclass carnivals and cham¬ 
pionships are annual fixtures practically every¬ 
where. 

Moreover, student swimmers have succeeded 
in having collegiate and scholastic aquatic 
records for girls supervised competently and 
registered officially, which is significant of their 
awakened interest in technical matters and eager¬ 
ness to see their branch of the sport effectively 
standardized. So everything indicates that the 
time is fast approaching when college and high 
school aquatics for girls will assume as prominent 
a place in national athletics as have already 
Varsity and scholastic water sports for youths. 


110 Spalding's Athletic Library 

This appears the more likely, because of the 
early age at which our young women are developing 
skill in all forms of watermanship at present. It 
is no longer a source for amazement when imma¬ 
ture maids reap high honors in competition for 
women. We have seen little stars of thirteen 
and fourteen figure conspicuously in national 
championships, win or take prizes in world’s tests 
at the Olympic Games and help to shatter inter¬ 
national records at several distances in relay 
swimming. Even child mermaids at ten to twelve 
are scoring victories against full grown rivals. 

There is no doubt, therefore, that more and 
more hereafter colleges and schools will harbor 
girl students of great aquatic ability, variously 
expert in the several standard styles of swimming, 
fancy diving or plunging, and it may be taken for 
granted that the presence of these crack con¬ 
testants not only will serve to interest and 
encourage others but militate toward the upbuild¬ 
ing of the sport and bring about its countrywide 
recognition officially before long. 

This end is to be desired, for there is no more 
useful and beneficial physical accomplishment 
than swimming. Particularly in the formative 
period of adolescence it is invaluable in fostering 


Spalding's Athletic Library 


111 


good health and developing strong, well pro¬ 
portioned, vigorous young women. Water sports 
are the best means to attain the purpose in view. 

Swimming rules for girls’ colleges and schools; 
also swimming and lifesaving standards for sum¬ 
mer camps, as adopted by the National Associa¬ 
tion of Directors of Girls’ Camps, will be found 
in the “Official Handbook of the National Com¬ 
mittee on W omen’s Athletics of the American 
Physical Educational Association,” published in 
Spalding’s Athletic Library No. 115 R, price 25 
cents. 



112 


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QUESTIONS ON SWIMMING TECHNIQUE 

Answered by Mr. Handley in the “Women's Swimming 
Association News,” New York (published monthly). 

Question: I find it very difficult to breathe out through the 
nose under water. Is there any way to acquire the knack? 

Anszver: Yes. Practice breathing in by mouth and out 
through the nose in walking. Or, better still, fill a basin or 
washbowl with water, lean over it, take a quick deep breath by 
mouth; close mouth; then dip face and exhale slowly through 
the nose. This exercise will soon overcome the trouble. 

Question: Does the term, “six-beat crawl,” mean that you 
perform six kicks to every arm stroke? 

Answer: No, only to every double arm stroke. Three scis¬ 
soring motions are made during the drive of each arm. 

Question: I often get cramps in the legs in using the crawl 
kick. How can I overcome it? 

Answer: You undoubtedly hold the legs too rigid. Keep them 
supple by relaxing the muscles. 

Question: Is the crawl stroke good for distance swimming? 

Answer: It is the best for all distances. After the muscles 
lave been trained to the action the stroke becomes virtually 
effortless, provided the movements are not rushed. 

Question: Should the arms and legs drive together in swim¬ 
ming the breaststroke? 

Answer: No. The arms drive first. The kick is performed 
during the recovery of the arm. 

Question: Should one breathe at every stroke in swimming 
the crawl? 

Anszver: Yes, 


Spalding's Athletic Library 113 

Question: If one wishes to look ahead while swimming the 
crawl at what part of the stroke should it be done to least dis¬ 
turb the balance of the body? 

Anszver : Directly after inhaling, as the head turns from in¬ 
haling position to normal. 

Question: My legs have a tendency to sink. Is it due to lack 
of buoyancy or incorrect swimming? 

Answer: Undoubtedly to the latter. You probably raise the 
head to inhale, instead of twisting it. Tr> to keep the head on 
the same level always and to make the legs roll with the rest 
of the body when you turn to breathe in. That should over¬ 
come your trouble. 

Question: Do the legs and arms work independently in swim¬ 
ming the crawl? 

Answer: Decidedly not. The leg drive is timed rhythmically 
with the action of the arms. In teaching the stroke, however, 
instructors have found it the best policy to not teach inter-tim¬ 
ing at first, for pupils usually acquire the rhythm naturally and 
it confuses them to try to develop it wittingly. 

Question: I do not seem able lo rise high enough in the water 
to breathe properly in using the crawl. Can you offer some 
suggestion that will help me? 

Answer: There is no doubt that your trouble is due to incor¬ 
rect use of the head. Be sure that you start the drive of the 
under arm (opposite the side on which you breathe in) before 
you turn the head to inhale. That should overcome the difficulty. 

Question: How should the head be held for motionless float¬ 
ing on the back? 

Answer: It should be thrown well back in learning. But the 
average girl and woman is so buoyant that after she has mas¬ 
tered the knack of floating she can hold it almost in any posi¬ 
tion without disturbing the balance of the body. 


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Question: In turning to inhale while swimming the crawl 
should one roll the body only or twist the head also? 

Answer: The head should be twisted. In fact, in using our 
standard type of stroke, the six-beat double trudgeon-crawl, it 
is advisable to roll the body as little as possible. Beginners are 
told to roll heavily because it helps to master balance and swim¬ 
ming respiration. After gaining form, however, the mouth 
should be brought above surface chiefly by turning the head to 
one side. 

Question: Is there not a pause in the recovery of each arm 
as it comes to full reach, crawl stroke? 

Answer: No. The last part of the recovery should be made 
very slowly, but there is no actual pause. The alternate arm 
movements should be inter-timed so that each arm will catch 
(start its drive) before the other leaves the water for the re¬ 
covery. Then the application of propelling power will be con¬ 
tinuous. 

Question: Should the same stroke be used for all distances? 

Answer: If you mean “type” of stroke, yes. Of course, the 
movements must be made proportionately slower for middle or 
long distances than for short. Also, in using the trudgeon- 
crawl, it is advisable to widen a little the major (rhythm) 
kicks as the course to be covered lengthens. 

Question: Does it make any difference whether one breathes 
on one side or the other in swimming the crawl? 

Answer: Yes. Every swimmer has a “natural” side for 
breathing (inhaling) and it is the side toward which the body 
turns more readily when one learns the crawl and is told to roll 
heavily to both sides, d he feet furnish the best indication of 
the side to select, for they swing with the natural roll. Unless 
one inhales over the side they point to it is very difficult to 
attain swimming balance, for the head will twist one way and 
the feet the other. 


Spalding's Athletic Library 115 

Question: What is the meaning of the word “beat,” so often 
used in connection with names of swimming strokes? 

Answer: “Beat” is the term applied in swimming parlance to 
the basic unit of all crawl leg thrashes, i.e., a complete scissor 
kick, drive and recovery included. Used in connection with the 
name of a stroke it indicates that the number of scissoring mo¬ 
tions performed by the legs to each full cycle of the two arms. 

Question: How should one breathe in the back stroke? 

Answer: As the mouth is always above water it is possible to 
breathe at will. You will find it advantageous, however, to 
inhale and exhale in time with the arm stroke, as you have been 
accustomed to with the crawl, for it helps to establish rhythmic 
action. 

Question: How should shoulders be held when using the crawl ? 

Answer: One of the most prevalent and costliest faults in¬ 
curred by crawl swimmers is to swing the shoulders with the 
arms as the latter go forward in recovery. This affects the 
whole stroke. The shoulders should be held fairly square all 
the time, merely rolling laterally in the acts of breathing, so 
that the body will retain a steady balance, planing adequately 
and offering a minimum of resistance to the water. If the 
shoulders are allowed to move with the arms the hips will sway 
from side to side, increasing resistance; the arms not only will 
over-reach, but cross dt the catch, losing efficiency in the driv¬ 
ing movements; and the body will sink unnecessarily, in conse¬ 
quence, for the arms will not be in position to apply power so 
as to support it properly. 

Question: I find it difficult to relax the muscles of the arm 
when I try to turn the hand palm down, as it leaves water in 
recovery. Can you offer any suggestion? 

Answer: A flip of the wrist as the hand clears the surface 
will help materially. Turn palm toward body, thumb down, as 
the hand is about to leave the water, then whip the hand gently 
inward, from wrist, as soon as it comes above surface. 


H6 Spalding’s Athletic Library 

Question: How can I avoid bending at the waist when I turn 
to inhale? 

Answer: Keep the kick very narrow and let the legs roll with 
the body when you turn; usually that is enough to correct the 
fault. 

Question: What is the difference between the single and 
double trudgcon-crawls ? 

Answer: The difference rests in the leg drive. With the 
single trudgeon-crawl the first scissor kick only is made wider 
than the others; with the double two of the kicks are given 
wider scope, the first and third in using a four-beat action, the 
first and fourth in using a six-beat. 

Question: Is any advantage gained by submerging the face 
after breathing in swimming the breast stroke? 

A usurer: Yes. With head in natural position, the neck 
muscles are better able to relax and the body is allowed to 
stretch out flat, offering less resistance to the water in gliding 
between strokes. 

Question: Is it advisable to finish the arm drive vigorously in 
swimming the crawl? 

Answer: One should keep pressure on the water to the end 
of the drive, but any jerk at the finish causes unnecessary waste 
of energy, for very little benefit is drawn from the power ap¬ 
plied as the arm completes its pull. 

Question: Is it essential to breathe out through the nostrils in 
swimming the crawl? 

Answer: Not essential, but advisable. There is nothing to 
prevent exhaling by mouth. The other way is advocated, how¬ 
ever, because, once the habit is acquired of breathing out 
always through the nostrils while in the water, there is very 
little danger of drawing water into the nostrils and having it 
lodge in the nearby channels, which often causes trouble. 


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Question: In using the crawl kick, or thrash, do the legs drive 
downward and recover upward, or vice versa? It isn’t quite 
clear to me when power should be applied and released. 

Answer: The legs drive and recover simultaneously, not 
separately. Each complete scissor, or beat, from full opening, 
includes drive and recovery. The legs propel while closing, 
until they meet, and recover in opening, after passing one an¬ 
other. In other words, the first half of the combined down¬ 
ward sweep of one leg and upward of the other constitutes the 
drive in every scissoring act, the second half marks the idle 
recovery. Obviously, then, the closing movement should be 
made vigorous, the opening movement in relaxation. 

Question: What is the best way to acquire the six-beat crawl 
after one has become accustomed to the four-beat? 

Answer: Make the leg movements faster and narrower, occa¬ 
sionally counting one-two-three during the drive of the top arm 
and four-five-six during the recovery of the same arm. Time 
the action by counting as each leg starts its downward movement. 

Question: Is the standard side stroke the one in which both 
arms recover under water, or the other, in which one arm re¬ 
covers above water? 

Answer: A great deal of fruitless discussion has taken place 
on the subject. Some claim that the underwater style is the 
standard stroke, because it was introduced first, others maintain 
that the so-called over-arm variety deserves the distinction, 
because it represents an improvement on the original and is 
most used at present. The point seems totally immaterial, since 
neither type is considered a standard stroke nowadays. More¬ 
over, if we follow the arguments offered in each case to their 
logical conclusion both claims are unwarranted, for the under¬ 
water variety is only a modification of the breast stroke, while 
the trudgeon and the several styles of crawl are mere improve¬ 
ments on the over-arm type, itself one of the phases in the 
evolution of the breast stroke. 


• 18 Spalding's Athletic Library 

Question: To which side should one turn in getting around at 
the end of a pool, when one is swimming several laps? 

Answer: The quickest and most comfortable turn is made by- 
spinning away from the side on which one inhales. Those who 
inhale over the left shoulder do best by turning to the right 
and vice versa. In racing, however, it is profitable to be able to 
turn to either side, for the arms not always are in the wanted 
position as one reaches the end of the pool. It needs be added, 
though, that when the last stroke carries one with top-arm 
within a few inches of the wall, it is more advantageous to 
glide those few inches under the impetus of the leg thrash, 
than to take another half stroke and turn the other way. 

Question: Should all swimmers aim to keep the eyes at water 
level during the drive of the under arm, or does the position 
apply only to individuals unusually buoyant? 

Answer: Buoyancy naturally affects position to a certain ex¬ 
tent, but all should try to keep the eyes “approximately” at 
water level. A couple of inches above or below surface is suffi¬ 
cient margin to adjust differences in buoyancy. 

Question: When I flip the hand at the end of the crawl arm 
drive, as advised, my whole arm throws across the body. I am 
told that is wrong. What should I do? 

Answer: Flip from the wrist, not the shoulder or elbow. So 
soon as the arm leaves the water in recovery the forearm should 
start outward, not toward the body, and the flip is made solely 
from the wrist. 

Question: When taking arms out of the water, in the crawl, 

do you bring them out elbow first, or finish the stroke with 
arm straight? 

Answer: The arms should be comfortably straight when leav- 
ing the water, hands palm down. Elbows do not start forward 
unt.1 the forearms have circled around and pointed straight 


Spalding's Athletic Library 119 

Question: How soon after the entry should one start to bend 
the arm in the propelling drive of the crawl? 

Answer: After about one-fourth of the driving movement 
(from full reach to thigh) has been made. 

Question: Is knowledge of the breast stroke necessary for 
lifesaving purposes? 

Answer: No. The most effective carries call for use of 
the scissor kick, which is the basic unit of all crawl leg thrashes, 
and for a one-arm drive which is quite different from the breast 
stroke arm movements. 

Question: In learning the plam front dive should the head be 
held up or down? 

Anszver: The correct way to perform the front dive is to 
hold the head erect on taking off and until about to strike the 
water. Beginners, however, should start by lowering the head 
a trifle, as this lessens the chances of landing flat. 

Question: If the arm movements of the crawl are alternate, 
how does one obtain continuous application of arm power? It 
seems to me that there will be a momentary check when the 
arms reach full extension simultaneously, one forward, the other 
back. 

Answer: Continuous propulsion is obtained by so timing the 
movements that each arm will apply power (catch) while the 
other still retains pressure on the water at the end of its drive. 
In other words, the right arm should start its drive before the 
left comes to the surface in recovery, and vice versa. 

Question: I am told I breathe on the wrong side. Will it be 
easier for me to change the breathing or the leg drive? 

Answer: It is hard to say which will be easier, but there is 
little doubt that you will profit more in the long run by chang¬ 
ing the breathing, for almost invariably the action of the legs 
indicates natural inclination concerning roll of body. 


120 Spalding’s Athletic Library 

Question: In swimming the back stroke are the hands held 
palm-out throughout the recovery of the arms? 

Answer: Yes. 

Question: How can I avoid bending at the waist in swim¬ 
ming the crawl ? 

Answer: Try to make the leg movements upward, toward the 
surface, instead of whipping downward. Usually this corrects 
the fault. 

Question: In raising the speed of the crawl stroke for sprint¬ 
ing, what part of the arm stroke should one quicken? 

Answer: The entire stroke, so that the relative timing of the 
various parts will remain the same, proportionately. 

Question: Is it considered standard form to bend the legs in 
the kick of the side stroke? 

Answer: No. In the modern side stroke the scissor kick 
used is performed with legs almost straight, merely giving the 
knees sufficient play to make the action supple and permit effec¬ 
tive muscular relaxation. The old scissor kick, with knees bent 
and raised, caused totally unnecessary resistance and has long 
been discarded by competent instructors. 

Question: How wide should the leg thrash be in learning the 
crawl ? 

Anszver: It is best in learning to not make it wider than 6 to 
8 inches. Later the major, or rhythm kicks, may be increased 
in scope, but this should not be attempted at first. 

Question: Need the fingers be held close together in the 
recovery of the crawl? I find that the hand relaxes more thor¬ 
oughly when I hold them slightly apart—limp. 

Answer: It is advantageous to relax completely in recovery, 
so do not change your recovery, but be sure to close the fingers 
as the hand enters the water lor the dive, or you will lose 
leverage and propelling power. 


Spalding’s Athletic Library 


121 


A.A.U. AND OLYMPIC SWIMMING AND 

DIVING RULES 

All National Championships and all Open Amateur Swimming and 
Diving competitions held in the United States are conducted under the 
following rules. These rules are practically the same as the Inter¬ 
national Rules under which Olympic Games competitions are conducted. 


SWIMMING RULES. 


1. Officials. 

2. The Bath. 

3. The Course. 

4. The Race. 

5. Breast Stroke Swimming. 

6. Back Stroke Swimming. 

7. Plunge for Distance. 

RULE I. 


8. Miscellaneous. 

9. Protests. 

10. Classes of Competition. 

11. Championship Events. 

12. Records. 

13. Handicaps. 

14. Costumes. 


OFFICIALS. 


For all races there shall be a starter, a referee, a clerk of the course, 
and not less than three judges and three timekeepers, a scorer, announcer, 
and one or more inspectors. 

(a) The Starter shall have full control of the competition until the 
signal to start is given. Before starting the race the starter shall satisfy 
himself that the other officials are in their places. The starter shall 
explain to each contestant before the race: 

(1) The signal or word which is to be given to start the race. 

(2) The distance to be covered and where the race will terminate. 

(3) If in open water, he shall point out the objects to be 
rounded, and in what manner. 

Competitors starting before the signal shall be disqualified unless they 
return to the same position from which they started and restart. 

The start shall be made in this fashion. The swimmers lined up and 
informed as above, will be commanded, “Get Ready,” when the starter 
sees all are set, the gun shall be fired. In indoor meets the signal to 
start may be given by word of mouth. 

The start in all races shall be made with a dive except in backstroke 
races which shall be as provided for in rule (6). The starting stations 
shall be drawn for, Number 1 starting from the right facing the course. 

(b) The Judges shall have jurisdiction over the competitors imme¬ 
diately the signal to start has been given, and they shall decide the winner 
and the places of those competing. 


122 


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(c) The Referee shall enforce all the rules and decisions of the Ama¬ 
teur Athletic Union, and shall decide all questions relating to the actual 
conduct of the meeting, the final settlement of which is not otherwise 
assigned by said rules. 

(d) 7 he Timekeepers, shall take the time of the race according to the 
regulations of the rule (4, section f) and rule (12), records. 

Officials for championships shall be appointed by or approved by the 
Swimming Committee. 

RULE II. THE BATH: 

The end walls of the bath shall be parallel and must be built perpen¬ 
dicular to the bottom, and so constructed that the competitors can push 
off in turning with the hands or feet. The walls shall extend at least 
three feet below the surface of the water. 

The starting platform shall not exceed 2 feet 6 inches in height from 
the level of the water for indoor competition; in open water it shall not 
exceed five feet, but in either case the height must not be less than 
eighteen inches. The surface of the starting platform should be covered 
with cocoanut matting or some similar material. 

RULE III. THE COURSE: 

For competition in open water, the course shall be marked off distinctly 
and visibly. The starting and finishing lines shall be at right angles to 
the course, and must be firm. There shall be turning boards at both ends 
of the course, which shall be as wide as the course, extending not less 
than 3 feet under water and 12 inches above surface. If the finish is not 
at the end of the course, it must be at a firmly fastened pole or rope 
suspended not less than 2 feet above the surface of the water, and decor¬ 
ated with streamers or flags so as to be visible to the contestants. 

RULE IV. THE RACE: 

(a) Obstructing another competitor by swimming across or otherwise 
interfering shall disqualify the offender, subject to the discretion of the 
referee. 

) (b) Should a foul endanger the chance of success of a contestant, the 
referee shall have power to allow him to swim in the next round, or"* 
should the foul occur in the final he may order it reswum. In case of a 
collusion to foul another contestant, the referee may, at his discretion, 
disqualify the contestant for whose aid the foul was committed, as well 
as the contestant doing the fouling. 

(c) When turning the swimmers must touch the end of the bath or 
course with one hand in free style and backstroke swimming, or both 
hands simultaneously in breaststroke, as described in Rule V. 

(d) Standing on the bottom during a race shall not disqualify a com¬ 
petitor, but he must not walk or spring from the bottom. 


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(e) For all free style and backstroke events each competitor shall 
have at least five feet of clear space unobstructed by steps, ladders, 
fountains or overhanging pieces which will interfere with swimming or 
turning^ For breaststroke events each swimmer shall have a seven-foot 
lane. The referee shall see that this rule is strictly enforced. 

(f) For competitions where the finish of the race is not at a solid wall 
or object, but where a rope or pole can be touched, a hand finish shall 
be used. Wherever a rope or pole cannot be used for the finish and in 
all intermediate distances, the head finish shall be taken. 

RULE V. BREASTSTROKE SWIMMING: 

(a) Both hands must be pushed forward together and drawn back¬ 
wards simultaneously. The body must be kept perfectly on the breast, 
the shoulders in a plane parallel with the surface of the water. The head 
shall not turn to either side. The shoulders must at all times be at 
right angles to the line of forward progress. 

(b) The feet shall be drawn up together, the knees bent and open. 
The movement is continued with a rounded and outward sweep of the 
feet, bringing the legs together. 

(c) When touching at the turn, or in finishing a race, the touch must 
be made with both hands simultaneously. 

(d) Any competitor introducing a sidestroke movement is to be 
disqualified. 

Note. —In the breaststroke the movements of both sides of the body are 
to be identical, and executed simultaneously. Anything that one foot 
does, the other must be doing at the same time. Not keeping the shoulders 
level, hunching one in front of the other, extending one hand out for the 
turn or finish, engaging the water with the instep of one foot and the sole 
of the other, all these are indications of improper form and the user 
thereof should be disqualified. 

RULE VI. BACKSTROKE SWIMMING: 

The competitors shall line up in the water, facing the starting end. 
with both hands resting on the end or rail of the bath. At the signal for 
starting they shall push off and swim upon their backs throughout the 
race. 

Any competitor turning over before his hand has touched the end of 
the course, for the purpose of turning or finishing, shall be disqualified. 

RULE VII. PLUNGE FOR DISTANCE: 

The maximum height of take-off for the plunge for distance shall be 
limited to eighteen inches above the surface of the water. 

A plunge shall be a standing dive, made head first from an indicated 
firm take-off (i.e., diving base), free from spring. The body is to be 
kept motionless—face downward—and no progressive action to be im- 


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parted to it other than impetus of the dive. During the plunge the hand 
of a competitor shall be kept together. 

The plunge shall terminate, if the competitor has not already raise< 
his face above the surface of the water, at the expiration of 60 seconds 
or such time as may have been previously announced by the promoting 
body. The duration of such plunge shall be reckoned from the time th* 
competitor dives from the take-off. 


At the finish of any plunge the competitor must leave the water a 
quietly as possible. Anyone disturbing the water so as to interfere witl 
the progress of the competitor following will be disqualified. 

The distance traversed in a plunge shall be measured along a straigh 
line, at right angles to the diving base, to a line parallel to the divinj. 
base, over the farthest point reached by any portion of the competitor’.' 
body while fulfilling the above conditions. 

In championship or level contests each competitor shall be allowec 
three plunges, and the farthest plunge shall win. In handicaps, the num¬ 
ber of plunges shall be left to the discretion of the promoting club 

When a competitor touches the side of the tank or pool, his distance 
shall be taken and he shall be compelled to stop. 

A line may be made or painted along the bottom of the pool or tank 
to enable the competitors to guide themselves. 


RULE VIII. MISCELLANEOUS: 

. Tbere sha11 be no coaching of contestants from the time they are placed 
in the care of the starter until the race is finished. Officials shall be 
appointed to call lengths where there are no signs provided. 

In relay races competitors other than the first swimmer shall not start 
until touched by an official appointed for that purpose, who shall touch 

the contestant on the leg below the knee the instant his teammate has 

concluded his lap. 

Points in the Championships shall count as follows: 


First in swim, plunge or dive.... 

Second in swim, plunge or dive. 

Third in swim, plunge or dive. . . 

First in relay race. 


Second in relay race. 


Third in relay race. 


First in Water Polo. 


Second in Water Polo. 


Third in Water Polo. 



The medley and penthathlon shall count as swims. 

i u C °,7 lp J le ; i0n . 0f , the * n< *oor an d outdoor racing seasons, points 
shal be totalled for the championships and the team champion announced 
All winners of National Swimming Championship first place medals 
and the team winning on total points shall also be awarded a suitably 











125 


Spaldings Athletic Library 

inscribed certificate signed by the President of the Amateur Athletic 
Union and the Chairman of the Swimming Committee. 

RULE IX. PROTEST: 

Any protest or complaint shall be lodged with the referee within 
thirty minutes after the race. 

Appeals from decisions on protests and complaints in the case of local 
meets and local championships shall be considered by the District Associa¬ 
tion Swimming Committee, in case of National Championships, by the 
National Swimming Committee. 

RULE X. CLASSES OF COMPETITION: 

The Annual Swimming Championships of the Amateur Athletic Union 
shall consist of a Senior Class and a Junior Class. The Senior Class 
shall be open to all registered amateurs from any country. The Junior 
Class shall be open to all registered athletes who have not won a first 
place in the class of events as hereinafter described, in any National 
Swimming Championship of the Amateur Athletic Union, or of any 
foreign country, or a first place in any Intercollegiate Association Cham¬ 
pionships, or at the Olympic Games. 

For the purpose of defining eligibility to the Junior or Novice Classes, 
aquatic events shall be divided into six classes, as follows: 

1. Free style. 4. Diving. 

2. Backstroke. 5. Plunge for distance. 

3. Breaststroke. 6. Medley and Pentathlon. 

The winner of one event in the Junior Championships in any of the 
said classes shall be ineligible for further competition as a junior in such 
class. The fact that a swimmer has been on a winning relay or polo 
team shall not disqualify him from the junior classes. 

A novice is only barred from competition in the class in which he has 
won a prize. 

RULE XI. CHAMPIONSHIP EVENTS: 

The following events shall be held as National Championships junior 
and senior classes: 

(a) Indoor, Men—Free style events—50 yards; 100 yards; 220 yards; 

500 yards. 

Backstroke, 150 yards; Breaststroke, 220 yards; Fancy Diving from 
Springboard; Plunge for Distance; Relay. 220 yards, four men; Relay, 
400 yards, four men; Pentathlon; Medley Swim; Water Polo. 

(b) Indoor, Women—Free style events—50 yards; 100 yards; 220 
yards; 500 yards. 

Backstroke, 100 yards; Breaststroke, 100 yards; Fancy Diving from 
low Springboard; Fancy Diving from 10 foot Springboard; Plunge for 
Distance; Relay. 200 yards, four women; Relay, 400 yards, four women; 
Pentathlon; Medley Swim. 


126 


Spalding's Athletic Library 

(c) Outdoor, Men and Women—50 yards; 100 yards; 220 yards; 440 
yards; 880 yards; One Mile; Long Distance; Relay, 400 yards, four 
swimmers; 150 yards Backstroke; 220 yards Breaststroke; Pentathlon; 
Medley; High Platform Dive; Fancy Diving from 10 foot Springboard. 

Junior championships are to be held at the discretion of the swimming 
committee. 

Outdoor championships are to be held over a properly staked-off course 
not less than a hundred yards in length and shall be held in open still 
water, or in tidal waters at high tide, or in an outdoor pool which fulfills 
the conditions. The ends of the course must be made fast to prevent 
swaying and changing of the course, and must have turning boards at 
least three feet below the surface of the water. 

The long distance championship may be held over a straight course, 
and in running water. The distance shall be selected with a view of 
making the time of the race not less than an hour, and not more than two 
and a half hours. 

Indoor championships shall be held in baths not less than twenty yards 
in length. 

Unless otherwise determined by the Swimming Committee, not more 
than one free style championship may be held on the same day, and no 
event save the relay or polo on the day the pentathlon or medley swim 
is held. 

Unless otherwise determined by the swimming committee the indoor 
championships shall be held between February 1st and April 30th, and 
the outdoor championships between July 15th and September 15th. 

D^tes for all indoor championships shall be decided upon, and the 
Chairman of the National Swimming Committee notified thereof, not 
later than February 1st. The dates for all outdoor championships shall 
be decided upon, and the Chairman of the National Swimming Com¬ 
mittee notified thereof, not later than June 1st. A failure to set the date 
of any championship within the time prescribed shall cause such event 
to be withdrawn and re-awarded. 

Outdoor championships shall be held in water not lower than sixty-two 
degrees in temperature, and indoor championships in water not lower 
than sixty-six. 

No smoking shall be permitted in enclosed baths during programme 
where championships are being held. 

The holder of a national championship shall be entitled to receive from 
the organization holding the meet full expenses for competing in the meet, 
if in the opinion of the swimming committee, the champion is in condition 
to defend the title. 

A fee of $10.00 shall accompany each application for a championship event. 

An entry fee of $2.00 per entry shall be charged for each senior indivi¬ 
dual event; $1.00 per entry for each junior individual event; $10.00 per 
team in water polo and $4.00 per team in relay championships. All such 
payments to be made in advance. 


127 


Spalding’s Athletic Library 

PENTATHLON. 

(a) The Pentathlon consists of 100 yards any style except breast and 
back. 100 yards backstroke, 100 yards breaststroke, 500 yards any style 
and the 50 yard life saving race, to be contested in the order named. 

(b) The 50 yard life saving race is to consist of a 25 yard swim to 
the subject and a 25 yard tow using any hold. The subject’s face and 
mouth must be kept above the water subject to the decision of the judges. 
The subject is to be the same for each competitor. Three judges are to 
be named by the Referee and the three judges shall agree upon the holds 
and the nature of the contest. Each contestant shall swim separately and 
have his time taken. If a turn is required, the competitor must touch 
the wall above the water with one hand. 

(c) The clerk of course shall draw the contestants before each event 
and they shall be assigned to lanes or compete in the order in which 
they have been drawn. 

(d) Each competitor must compete in every one of the five events. 
The contest will be decided on points according to the place number of 
the contestants in each race which shall be added, and the one with the 
lowest total shall be declared the winner. Should a competitor be dis¬ 
qualified he shall be assigned to the last place in the contest. In the 
event of a tie, the competitors need not compete again. If two or more 
obtain the same result, those so tieing receive the same points and the 
next man receives a point corresponding to the position in which he 
finishes relative to all other competitors. An interval of at least five 
minutes shall be allowed between events. 

The MEDLEY swim shall be a race of three hundred yards, 100 yards 
each of breaststroke, backstroke and free style, swam in the order named. 
Rules pertaining to back and breaststroke swimming will obtain in this 
contest. 

RULE XII. RECORDS: 

In swimming competitions Amateur Athletic Union records shall be 
recognized over the following distances: 

FREE STYLE—50, ICO, 150, 220, 300, 440, 500, 880, 1000 yards and 
one mile. 

BACKSTROKE—100 and 150 yards. 

BREASTSTROKE—100 and 220 yards. 

RELAY RACING—Club teams of four and five men, each to swim 
equal distances of 50 and 100 yards. 

PLUNGING—The time consumed in plunging distances of sixty and 
seventy-five feet, and the greatest distance covered in one minute. 

There shall be three records for each distance in yards, recognized as 
American Amateur records. They shall be (1) 20-yard pool records. (2) 
short-course records (made over courses 25 yards up to 50 meters, 
approximately 55 yards), and (3) long-course records (madeover courses 
50 meters and up.) 


128 


Spalding 9 s Athletic Library 


For 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 1000 and 1500 meters free style, 100, 200, 
400 meters backstroke, and 100, 200, 400 and 500 meters breaststroke, only 
short and long-course records will be recognized. 

American Amateur records can only be made in still water, or in tidal 
water where the swimmer has not been aided by the tide. 

A record can be made in scratch competition, or in handicap races 
provided the contestant is timed by three or more time-keepers who start 
their watches when the signal for the record-attempter to start is given, 
or in a specially appointed race against time, decided in public and duly 
fixed and advertised at least three days before the attempt or race. No 
competitor shall start whose name is not entered, and no one, whether 
entered or not, shall join the competition after it has started. 

The time shall be taken by three or more time-keepers, who shall be 
appointed or approved by the swimming committee. In case two of the 
three agree, that time shall be taken as the official time. In cases of 
difference between the three, the average time shall be taken. The names 
of the time-keepers must appear in the advertisement of the attempt on 
the record. The course must be measured at the time and certified correct 
by a surveyor or a duly qualified official appointed or approved by the 
swimming committee. 

The contestant shall apply to the referee to have the paper blanks filled 
out for records. 

All claims for records must be made within fourteen days after the 
performance, applications to go to the chairman of the swimming com¬ 
mittee who shall have authority to pass on them provisionally, subject to 
their ratification by the National Record Committee at the annual meet¬ 
ing, or by mail vote. 

Every holder of an American Amateur record shall be presented with 
a certificate signed by the President of the Amateur Athletic Union and 
the chairman of the National Swimming Committee immediately on the 
record being passed by the committee. 

No claim for record can be considered unless the contestant wear 
recognized costume with supporter. 

RULE XIII. HANDICAPS: 

In all handicap competitions a check starter shall be appointed, whose 
duty it shall be to see that no competitor start before his proper time. 
He shall report any violation of this rule to the referee, who shall dis¬ 
qualify the offender should his finish affect the result of the race. 

The competitor who has the lowest handicap may choose the side of 
the course he wishes to swim on. The others, in order of their handicaps, 
shall be arranged alongside of the scratch man. When two or more are 
on the same mark they shall draw for position. 

In case of a dead heat the competitor with the lowest handicap shall be 
declared the winner. In case a dead heat occurs between two contestants 


129 


Spalding's Athletic Library 


from the same mark, the tie shall be decided by a swim-off on the same 
day, or the one refusing to swim shall be given the next lowest prize. 

RULE XIV. REGULATION COSTUME: 

Men—Must be of a dark color, with supporter underneath. Suit must 
be cut in a straight line around circumference of leg. For races longer 
than a mile in open water contestants may wear a pair of trunks reach¬ 
ing from waist to a point at least two inches below the crotch, with the 
bottom cut in a straight line around the circumference of the leg. A sup¬ 
porter must be worn with this costume also. 

Women—Suit must be of dark color with skirt attached. Leg is to 
reach four inches from crotch, and be cut in straight line around the 
circumference of the leg. Suit shall be cut not lower than Z l / 2 inches 
from pit of neck in front, and shall not be lower in back than in front. 
The armhole shall be cut not less than 2 l / 2 inches below the armpit, and 
not more than 2 inches from the crease of the arm in front and back. 

Note .—These measures are approximate, the idea being to bar costumes 
which are immodest, or will attract undue attention and comment. The 
referee shall have the power to bar from competicion offenders under this 
rule until they appear properly costumed. 


DIVING REGULATIONS. 


7. Judges’ Duties. 

8. Calculating Committee. 

9. General Rules. 

10. Protests. 

11. Spring-board DiVing Table. 

12. High Diving Table. 

13. Sample Score Cards. 


1. Spring Boards. 

2. High Diving Platforms. 

3. Depth of Water. 


4. Spring-board Championship 
Contests. 


5. High Diving Championship 
Contests. 


6. Judges. 

1. There shall be a low board, not less than 2 feet 6 inches and not 
more than 4 feet above the surface of the water, and a high board not 
less than 9 feet 6 inches nor more than 11 feet above the surface of the 
water. The boards must be slightly elastic and not more than 13 feet nor 
less than 10 feet long, 20 inches wide and covered with suitable matting. 
The boards shall project at least 3 feet 6 inches beyond the edge of the 
bath. 

2. High Diving Platforms shall be rigid and fixed free from spring, 
they shall be at least fifteen feet long and six feet wide, covered witli 
cocoanut matting, and have the back and sides surrounded with a hand¬ 
rail. The front of each platform shall project at least three feet from the 
edge of the platform immediately underneath, at standard heights of 
from 14 to 16 feet, and from 24 to 27 feet for men, and 20 to 22 feet 
for women. 


130 


Spalding s Athletic Library 


The platforms shall be subject to the approval of the judges appointed 
for each competition. 

3. The depth of the water shall be at least 7 feet underneath a low 
board and at least 9 feet underneath 9 ^eet 6 inches to 11-foot board. 

4. Programme for championships shall consist of the following dives • 
Running front dive, back dive, running forward jackknife, back jack¬ 
knife and six voluntary dives. Voluntary dives must be selected from not 
less than four of the thirteen groups of Diving Table “A.” No voluntary 
dive, however, shall be a repetition of any of the compulsory dives. Same 
voluntary dive shall not be done running and standing. 

5. Championship High Diving Contests shall comprise four compulsory 
dives and four voluntary dives. 

(a) The compulsory dives shall be: 

1. Running plain dive (14-16 foot platform). 

2. Backward somersault (14-16 foot platform). 

3. Standing plain dive (24-27 foot platform). 

4. Running plain dive (24-27 foot platform). 

(b) The voluntary dives shall be chosen from the high diving table 
and may be performed from either height. Compulsory dives may not 
be repeated for voluntary ones, and the same voluntary dive can be done 
from only one height. The same voluntary dive shall not be done run¬ 
ning and standing. 

6. Each judge shall award points for the execution of every dive as 
follows: 


Unsatisfactory . 

Deficient . 

Satisfactory . 

Good . 

Very good .. 

Excellent . 

No competitor shall be allowed 


.1—2 points 

.3—4 points 

.5—6 points 

.7—8 points 

. 9 points 

. 10 points 

to repeat a dive in which he failed. 


7. Judges’ Duties. In marking the award the judges shall consider: 

(a) The whole of the figure and the execution of the dive (proper 
carriage, confidence, good form). 

1. The carriage is excellent when natural and easy, but at the same 
time it must express force and energy; the attitude of the body shall be 
erect; the chest well expanded and the back hollow; the head must be 
held upright between the shoulders, the legs absolutely closed, feet out¬ 
stretched and the fingers not spread apart. 

2. The take-off shall be executed with an upward and outward spring, 
full of confidence and power. 








131 


S pal ding’s Athletic Library 

(b) The entry into the water is good when the body enters in a fault¬ 
less position, not too Hat, too stiff or overthrown. The build of the 
contestant should be taken into consideration when the amount of splash 
enters into the matter. 

8. Calculating Committee. The judges have to note only the award of 
points according to the execution of the dive. The fixing of the result 
shall follow through a calculating committee as follows: The points 
awarded for each voluntary dive shall be multiplied by the points allowed 
for the degree of difficulty in each case as specified in the following div¬ 
ing tables. 

After the total points for each competitor has been found and checked 
as being correct, the competitors shall be placed on each card in the order 
in which they finish on that card. 1 shall be given to diver scoring the 
greatest number of points, 2 to the diver scoring the second greatest 
number of points, etc. I f two competitors score the same number of points 
on any one sheet, their place numbers shall be added, and each given one 
half. For instance: If two competitors receive the same number of 
points, which is the second largest on the diving card of a judge, their 
place numbers 2 and 3 shall be added, and each competitor shall be given 
2 l / 2 , and the next following competitor shall receive 4. The place num¬ 
bers given to the respective competitors by each of the judges shall be 
added together, and the competitor showing the lowest total of place 
numbers shall be declared the winner. 

Should two or more competitors receive the same placing figure sum. 
the majority of judges shall decide; should thus another tie occur, the 
points awarded by all judges shall be totalled and the contestant with the 
highest total will be declared the winner. 

The calculating committee shall checkup to see whether the voluntary 
dives selected by the competitor correspond with the rules for voluntary 
dives. Wrong selection, or omission of any dive shall cause dis¬ 
qualification. 

9. General Rules: 

(a) All dives must be executed by competitors without assistance from 
or suggestions being made by trainers or anyone present at the time. 

(b) Before the contestant steps on the board the announcer shall call 
his name clearly and the dive that he is about to perform. The con¬ 
testant shall be given plenty of time to prepare himself for the execution 
of the dive. 

(c) The order of the start shall be decided by ballot. 

(d; Only the Amateur Athletic Union diving tables, printed in con¬ 
nection with these rules shall be used to select from. 

10. Protests (see Swimming Rules). 


132 Spaldings Athletic Library 

11. SPRINGBOARD DIVING TABLE. 

DIVING TABLE “A" 

,-Degree of Difficulty- 

^ . . Arm Close 

Arms on Entering to g |( j es 

No. Name of Dive. Water Throughout 

Rigid Laid by Sides Dive 
L.B. H.B. L.B. H.B. L.B. H.B. 

(A). Dives with take off forward and for¬ 
ward turn or take off backward, standing 
backward with backward turn. 


I. FOOT DIVES. 


1. Forward jump, feet together standing- 

1.0 

1.0 

. . • 

. • . 

. • • 

. . . 

2. Forward step and running. 

1.0 

1.0 


• « * 

* * * 

• * * 

II. FALLING OFF. 

3. Falling dive, forward . 


1.1 

. . . 


. . . 

1.1 

4. Falling dive, backward . 


1.2 


• • * 

* * • 

1.2 

III. HEAD DIVES (HEADERS) 

5. Header forward, standing . 

1.2 

1.2 

1 .3 

1.4 

1.3 

1.4 

6. Header forward, running . 

1.2 

1.3 

1.3 

1.4 

1.4 

1.5 

7. Header forward, running takeoff with 1 leg 

1.2 

1.3 

. . . 

1 ’<5 

i.4 

i.o 

8. Header backward . 

1 .3 

1.5 

1.4 

9. Hunch dive, standing . 

1 .3 

1.4 

. . . 


. . . 

• . . 

10. Hunch dive, running . 

1.3 

1.4 


... 

• * * 

• • • 

IV. SCREW DIVES (TWISTS) 

11. % Screw forward, standing . 

1.5 

1.6 

. . . 


1.6 

1 .7 

12. % Screw forward, running . 

1.5 

1.6 



1.6 

1.7 

13. % Screw backward, standing . 

1.4 

1.5 

. . . 


1.5 

1.6 

14. 1 Screw forward, standing . 

1.9 

1.9 

. . . 


1.9 

2.0 

15. 1 Screw forward, running. 

1.9 

1.9 

• • • 


1.9 

2.0 

16. 1 Screw backward, standing . 

1.9 

2.0 



1.9 

2. U 

V. PIKE DTVES FORWARD 
(JACKKNIFE DIVE) 

17. Pike dive, standing . 

1.4 

1.5 

1.5 

1.6 

1.6 

1.7 

18. Pike dive, running . 

1.5 

1.6 

1.6 

1.7 

1.7 

1.8 

VI. BORER DIVES (JACKKNIFE DIVES 

WITH % OR 1/1 TURN) 

19. % Borer forward, standing . 

1.9 

1.8 

... 

... 

... 

... 

20. % Borer forward, running . 

1.8 

1.9 

. . . 

• • • 

. . . 

. . . 

21. 1 Borer forward, standing . 


2.0 

. . . 

. . . 

. . . 


22. 1 Borer forward, running . 


2.0 



. .. 


VII. SOMERSAULTS. 

(N.B.—The body must enter the water 
stretched out, irrespective of take-off.) 

23. 1 Somersault forward, standing . 

• • • 

... 

1.4 

1.6 

1.7 

1.7 

24. 1 Somersault forward, running . 

... 

... 

1.4 

1.7 

1.6 

1.8 

25. 1% Somersault forward, standing . 

1.8 

1.6 

1.9 

1.8 

2.0 

1 .9 

26. 1% Somersault forward, running. 

1.7 

1 .6 

1.8 

1 .8 

1.9 

1.9 

27. Double somersault forward, standing ... 

. . . 

. . . 

... 

2.0 

, . 


28. Double somersault forward, running. 

. . . 

. . , 

• • • 

2.0 



29. 1 Somersault backward . 

... 


1 .4 

1.6 

1.7 

1.7 

30. 1 y> Somersault backward . 

... 

1.9 

... 

2.0 



31. Double somersault, backward . 

... 

... 

... 

2.0 



313.2% Somersault forward . 2.0 2.0 

Abbreviations: L. B., low board; H. B., high board. 

• ' * 

• • • 

• . . 

• * • 






































133 


Spalding’s Athletic Library 


No. 


(B). 


Name of Dive. 


Dives with take-off backward and 
forward turn. 


Degree of Difficulty 


Arms on Entering 
the Water 

Rigid Laid by Sides 


L.B. H.B. 


L.B. H.B. 


Arm Close 
to Sides 
Throughout 
Dive 

L.B. H.B. 


Till. PIKE DTVE, BACKWARD (JACK¬ 
KNIFE BACKWARD) 

32. Tike dive, backward . 1.5 1.5 

IX. BORER DIVE, BACKWARD (.TACK- 
KNIFE BACKWARD WITH HALF TWIST) 

C3. V 2 Borer, backward . 1.9 1.8 

X. PIKE SOMERSAULTS (JACKKNIFE 
BACKWARD WITH FORWARD SOMER¬ 
SAULTS) 

34. 1 Pike somersault. 

35. 1 y 2 Pike somersault. 2.0 


1.6 1.6 


1.9 1.7 

2.0 


1.7 1.7 


No. 


Name of Dive. 


(C). Dives with take off forward and turn backward. 
(Headers backward, standing facing water or running.) 

XI. AUERBACH (ISANDEIt, FLYING DUTCHMAN OR 
HALF GAINER) HEADERS, BODY STRAIGHT. 

36. Auerbach headers, standing, take off from one foot .... 

37. Auerbach headers, standing, take otf from both feet ... 

38. Auerbach headers, running, take off from one foot. 

XII. AUERBACH (ISANDER. FLYING DUTCHMAN 
AND HALF GAINER WITH JACKKNIFE) PIKE DIVES. 
(Headers with bending and stretching in the hips.) 

39. Auerbach Pike dive, standing, take off from one foot ... 

40. Auerbach Pike dive, running, take off from one foot .... 

41. Auerbach Pike dive, standing, take off from both feet .. 

42. Auerbach Pike dive, running, take off from both feet ... 

XIII. AUERBACH (MOLLBERG) SOMERSAULTS. 
(Somersaults backwards, standing facing the water, or 

running.) 

43. 1 Auerbach (Mollberg, Flying Dutchman Somersault or 

Full Gainer) somersault, standing, take off from one 
foot with jackknife. 

44. 1 Auerbach (Mollberg, Flying Dutchman Somersault or 

Full Gainer) somersault, running, take off from one 
foot with Jackknife . 

45. 1% Auerbach (Mollberg, Flying Dutchman iy 2 or iy 2 

Gainer) somersault, running, take off from one foot... 

46. 1 Auerbach (Mollberg) somersault, standing, take off 

from both feet, body straight. 

47. 1 Auerbach (Mollberg) somersault, running, take off from 

both feet, body straight . 


Degree of Difficulty 
Arms on Entering 
the Water 

Laid by 

Rigid Sides 

L.B. H.B. L.B. H.B. 


1.9 


1.9 
2.0 
1 .8 


2.6 


2.0 

2.0 

1.9 


1.8 

1.7 

1.8 
2.0 


1.8 
1.8 
1 .8 
2.0 


1.9 

1.8 

1.9 

2.0 


1.9 

1.9 

1.9 

2.0 


• • • • • • 

1.9 

1.8 

• • • • • • 

1.8 

1.8 

... 2.0 

... 

... 

. 

1.8 

1.8 


2.0 

2.0 













134 


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HIGH DIVING. 

1. Rigid platforms of three heights shall be used. First height not 
less than 14 ft. nor more than 18 ft. above the surface of the water. 
Second height over 18 ft. and not more than 24 ft. above the water. 
Third height over 24 ft. and not more than 30 ft. above the surface of 
the water. Platforms shall be not less than 10 ft. in length and 6 ft. 
wide, covered with suitable matting. The back and sides of the platform 
shall be provided with a railing and each must project not less than 3 
ft. 6 in. beyond the edge of the platform underneath. 

2. The depth of water at the point of entry shall be not less than half 
the height of the platform from which the dives are to be made, with a 
minimum of 10 feet. 

3. Conditions of competitions, namely, listing of compulsory dives, 
number of voluntary dives and height of boards must be stated in the 
entry blank. 

4. The program for national championships shall consist of the fol¬ 
lowing four compulsory dives: 

(1) Running plain dive from the second height. 

(2) Backward somersault from the second height. 

(3) Standing plain dive from the third platform. 

(4) Running plain dive from the third platform and six voluntary 
dives to be selected from the following diving tables, and to be 
performed from any of the three heights named. 

5. All conditions of competition referred to under springboard diving 
shall apply to high board diving. 


HIGH DIVING TABLE “B” 


I. 


II. 


For Fancy High Diving from Rigid Platforms 


Name of Dive. 

STANDING DIVES, BODY FACING THE WATER. 

1. Forward somersault. 

2. 1% forward somersault . 

3. Double forward somersault . 

3a.2 y 2 fonvard somersault. 

STANDING DIVES, BODY FACING THE PLATFORM. 

4. Backward spring and forward dive, body straight. 

5. Backward spring and forward somersault with 

jackknife . 

6. Backward spring and iy 2 forward somersault 

with jackknife. 

7. Backward head dive . 

8. Backward somersault, body straight . 


Degree of Difficulty 


First 

Second 

Third 

Height 

Height 

Height 

1.1 

1.3 

1.8 

1.1 

1.3 

1.6 

1.2 

1.3 

1.4 

1.8 

1.5 


1.0 

1.0 

1.1 

1.3 

1.3 

1.5 

1.5 

1.5 

1.8 

1.1 

1.3 

1 .9 

1.1 

1.1 

1.7 










135 


S pal ding* s Athletic Library 


Name of Dive. IlECJREE 

OF Diff 

1CULTY 

HANDSTANDING DIVES. 

First 

Height 

Second 

Height 

Third 

Height 

9. Armstand dive . 

1 l 

1.2 

1.3 

1 3 

10. Armstand backward fall dive . 

1.1 

1.8 

11. Armstand and somersault . 

1.2 

1.3 

1.4 

12. Armstand with forward cut through . 

1.1 

1.2 

1.5 

RUNNING DIVES. 




13. Flying somersault . 

14. Flying forward somersault (well pointed head dive 

1.2 

1.5 

1.9 

finished with somersault) knees drawn up during 
somersault .. 

1.2 

1.5 

2.0 

1.8 

15. iy 2 forward somersault, body bent in hips . 

16. Isander's dive (Flying Dutchman or naif Gainer) 

1.2 

1.4 


body straight . 

i.3 

1.6 

2.0 

17. Mollberg’s dive (Flying Dutchman, Somersault or 




Full Gainer), knees drawn up . 

1.2 

1.4 

1.8 


PLAIN HEADER. 

Starting position in the standing dive: the body straight, the head well 
up, the feet together, the arms stretched along the sides and the fingers 
closed. 

The take-off must be bold and confident, with the body thrown upwards 
and outwards. 

The bearing in the air: the head must be held well up, but not bent 
backwards; the chin must not be drawn in. 

The body must be straight, with the back slightly hollowed, but not 
bent backwards; the legs must be straightened and kept together, with 
the toes pointed and the inner sides of the feet together. 

The arms must be stretched out in a line with the shoulders and kept 
well up, so that the chest is expanded; they must not. therefore, hang 
below the body; neither must they be drawn too far backwards. The 
arms must be kept still until just before the entry into the water, when 
they must be rapidly brought together and extended beyond the head in 
a line with the body. 

The entry into the water : the bearing of the body must remain un¬ 
altered. Bending at the hips, knees or ankles will result in a loss of 
points. When the body meets the water, the whole of the falling move¬ 
ment must then take place in the longitudinal direction of the body; for¬ 
ward, backward and downward bending of the legs will entail a loss of 
points. The arms must be kept extended and together until the whole 
of the body is in the water, so that the entry into the water is accompa¬ 
nied by as little splash as possible. There must be a good bearing, with 
the arms and legs extended in a line with the body; the fingers not spread 
apart and the toes well pointed. 












136 


Spaldings Athletic Library 

The run must be easy, with the body in an even line; without jump or 
change of foot; the arms must hang easily by the side and must not be 
carried out laterally before the spring takes place. 

1 and 15. Single Forward Somersault. During the dive, the arms 
must be kept extended laterally. The trunk of the body must be kept 
straight and the bending made at the hips; bending the knees during the 
passage through the air will result in a deduction of points. During the 
entry into the water, the arms must be kept stretched along the sides. 

2 and 17. One and a half Forward Somersault. The trunk must be 
kept straight with the legs together and with the toes pointed. At the 
highest point of the dive, the body is bent from the hips; bending the 
knees will result in a loss of points. The arms must be kept stretched 
outwards until the somersault has been concluded and the body straight¬ 
ened again. The entry into the water as in Plain Header. 

3. Two and a half Forward Somersault. The hips are bent, but bend¬ 
ing the knees will result in a loss of points. The trunk must be straight, 
with the legs together and the toes pointed. The arms must be kept 
stretched outwards until the somersaults have been concluded and the 
body straightened again. The entry into the water as in Plain Header. 

4 and 18. Isander’s Dive, Flying Dutchman or Half-Gainer. Imme¬ 
diately after the take-off, the arms are carried rapidly above the head 
and remain extended beyond the head until the diver has completely en¬ 
tered the water; at the take-off the legs are thrown forwards and up¬ 
wards, whereupon the back is slightly hollowed until a perpendicular 
position has been attained, so that the entry into the water becomes the 
same as in a Plain Header. 

5 and 19. Mollberg’s Dive, Flying Dutchman Somersault or Full 
Gainer. At the take-off the legs are thrown forwards and upwards, and 
a backward somersault is turned. During the dive, the arms are kept 
stretched outwards, and then, at the entry into the water, stretched along 
the sides. Bending at the hips or knees will result in a loss of points. & 

6. Backward Spring and Forward Dive. During the dive, the arms 
must be kept stretched outwards; the body is cast outwards and upwards, 
is bent at the hips and then rapidly straightened; bending of the knees 
during the passage through the air will result in a loss of points. The 
entry into the water, which must take place with the back turned towards 
the platform and the face from it, shall be as in a Plain Header. 

7. The same dive, with somersault. The bearing of the arms and 
body as in the preceding dive. In the entry into the water, the bodv 
must be kept erect with the head well up and the arms stretched alono- 
the sides; the soles of the feet must not strike the surface of the water 
or a loss of points will result. 


137 


Spalding s Athletic Library 

8. The same dive, with one and a half somersault. The bearing of the 

arms and body as in the preceding dive. The entry into the water similar 
to No. 6. 

Rule^ common to dives 6—8- The body must be straightened before any 
part of it has touched the surface of the water. 

9. Backward Head Dive. During the dive, the arms must be held 
extended beyond the head; the back must be slightly hollowed, with the 
legs stretched and together, and with the toes pointed, the head in a 
natural position. In the entry into the water the hands must be held 
together, with the fingers closed as in Rule 15. 

10. Backward Somersault. During the dive, the arms must be kept 
stretched outwards; the back hollowed with the legs well stretched and 
held together and the toes well pointed; bending at the hips and knees 
during the passage through the air will result in a loss of points. In the 
entry into the water the arms must be held stretched along the sides; 
the toes pointed well downwards; head well up 

11. Armstand Dive. Starting position: the body, with the back hol¬ 
lowed and with the legs stretched above the head, is supported on 
straightened arms. When the body is perfectly balanced, the legs are 
carried slightly backwards, and the body is pushed outwards by the arms. 
After the take-off, the arms must be kept stretched downwards. The 
bearing of the body and the entry into the water, are the same as in 
Plain Header. 

12. Armstand Backward Fall Dive. The starting position as in the 
preceding dive. The legs are carried backwards and over, and, when 
the body has reached a suitable position, the take-off is effected by a 
push vvith the arms, which are afterwards kept extended above the head 
until, just before the entry into the water, they are stretched along the 
sides. The body must be kept straight, with the back hollowed slightly; 
the legs straight and together; the coes pointed; the head in a natural 
position. 

13. Armstand and Somersault. The starting position and the take-off 
as in the preceding dive. When the somersault is made the hips are bent 
slightly. Bending the knees during the passage through the air will re¬ 
sult in a loss of points. After the take-off, the arms must be kept ex¬ 
tended outwards. The entry into the water is the same as in Plain 
Header. 

14. Armstand with Forward Cut Through. The starting position as 
in the preceding dive. When the body is perfectly balanced, the legs are 
cut through the arms, and the body is borne outwards by a push-off from 
the arms. The legs must be kept straight and together after the cut 


138 


Spalding’s Athletic Library 

through, the toes pointed, the head in a natural position, and the arms 
stretched along the sides. 

Rules common to all the armstanding dives. The manner in which 
the starting position is taken up will not be judged, but, if the body is 
not balanced at the first attempt, points will be deducted. If the dive is 
made without the body having been properly balanced in the starting 
position, the dive will be marked below 6 points (or good dive). 

16. Flying Forward Somersault (well defined header then somersault). 
During the dive the arms must be kept extended beyond the head, which 
must be kept well up; the somersault shall be made halfway between the 
highest point of the dive and the surface of the water, and it must be 
executed rapidly, by drawing the arms quickly close into the body, the 
hips and the knees being bent as much as possible. The hands ought 
not to clasp the knees. Then the body is rapidly straightened and the 
arms are stretched close to the sides in the entry into the water; the toes 
pointed and the head well up. 

In order to obtain the highest points in this dive there must be a well 
defined header before the somersault and a somersault made as rapidly 
as possible. The straightening out of the body after the somersault, 
and before the entry into the water, must be so easily distinguishable 
that the diver can be plainly seen with his arms along his sides. 


HOW TO SCORE A DIVING COMPETITION. 

(Suggestions for Score Cards) 

Blanks for voluntary dives to be supplied by the club holding the com¬ 
petition. After filling them out and signing them, competitors deliver 
them to the clerk of the course. The announcer announces each volun¬ 
tary dive from these blanks when the respective competitor’s turn comes, 
and the diving judges must see that the dive nominated shall be per¬ 
formed. After the competition these blanks are turned over to the 
diving scorers. 



C5 Ol 4*. CO to M OSW^WtOH 1 Oi pi CO to M ®W 


139 


Spalding*s Athletic Library 


VOLUNTARY DIVES USED IN 


SCORE CARD, 


RAGE 140. 


The following samples of voluntary dives give an idea of combinations. 
Voluntary dives must be selected from not less than four of the thirteen 
groups of diving table “A” on pages 132 and 133 : 


Number . . Grade of 

in Table Description. Difficulty 

23 Forward, 1 Somersault, standing. 1.7 

29 Backward Somersault, arms laid by sides. 1.6 

36 Flying Dutchman, standing, take-off 1 foot. 1.9 

42 Flying Dutchman, running, with Jackknife, take-off both 

feet . 2.0 

45 Auerbach, 1 y 2 Somersault, running, take-off 1 foot.... 2.0 

20 Jackknife, forward, with Half Twist, standing. 1.8 


Competitor’s Signature: 

*S'. Joins. 


VOLUNTARY DIVES. 

Number ... Grade of 

in Table Description. Difficulty 

36 Flying Dutchman, take-off 1 foot. 2.0 

42 Auerbach Pike Dive, take-off both feet. 2.0 

45 1% Flying Dutchman, standing. 2.0 

31 Double Somersault, backward. 2.0 

30 1*4 Backward. 2.0 

35 Backward Jackknife, with 1 Ms Forward Somersault... 2.0 


Competitor’s Signature : 

IV. Smith. 


Number 
in Table 

23 

35 

38 

37 

15 

19 


VOLUNTARY DIVES. 

Description. 

Forward, 1 Somersault, standing. 

Backward Jackknife, with 1*4 Forward Somersault... 

Flying Dutchman, running take-off 1 foot. 

Flying Dutchman, standing take-off both feet. 

Full Twist, forward, running. 

Jackknife, forward, with Half Twist, standing. 

Competitor’s Signature : 


Grade of 
Difficulty 

1.7 
2.0 

1.8 
2.0 
1 .9 
1.8 


J. Brown. 


Number 
in Table 

35 

23 

38 

30 

15 

33 


VOLUNTARY DIVES. 
Description. 


Grade of 
Difficulty 


Backward Jackknife, with 1 M> Forward Somersault... 

Forward, 1 Somersault, standing. 

Flying Dutchman, running take-off 1 foot.. 

Backward, l J /> Somersault, arms laid by sides. 

Full Twist, forward running.. 

Jackknife, Backward, with Half Twist. 

Competitor’s Signature : 


2.0 

1.7 

1.8 
2.0 
1.9 
1.8 


W. Black. 
























140 


Spalding's Athletic Library 


SAMPLE SCORE CARD AS FILLED OUT BY JUDGE WHITE AND DIVING SCORERS. 

The Judge awards points for the four Compulsory Dives and also for the six Volun¬ 
tary Dives, writing the points for the latter in the column under heading “Judge’s 
Award.’’ The number of each Voluntary Dive selected by the competitor (listed on 
pages 1G2 and 133) is written in first column, and the group number in next column. 

He follows this procedure for each competitor listed on the card. When the compe¬ 
tition is finished the Judge hands the card to the Calculating Committee (see page 131), 
who write the “Degree of Difficulty” figures set forth in table on page 132, which 
multiplied by the figure of the “Judge's Award” gives the number of points secured 
by the competitor. (A “Ready Reckoner" for scoring “Difficulty of Dives” will be 
found on page 141.) The points for each competitor, including those for the “Compul¬ 
sory Dives” shown in last column, are added. 



NAME. L? 'A? 



N° 

COMPULSORY DIVES 

POINTS 

N° 

COMPULSORY DIVES 

POINTS 

N° 

COMPULSORY DIVES 

POINTS 

N °. 

COMPULSORY DIVES 

POINTS 

1 

RUN. FRONT DIVE 

7 

1 

RUN.FRONT DIVE 

7 

1 

RUN. FRONT DIVE 

S.5 


RUN. FRONT DIVE 

P 

2 

BACK DIVE 


2 

BACK DIVE 

/o 

2 

BACK DIVE 

? 

2 

BACK DIVE 

? 

3 

RUN. FOR'D DIVE 

7 

3 

RUN. FOR D DIVE 

70 

3 

RUN. FOR'D DIVE- 

73 

3 

RUN. FOR D DIVE 

/o 

4 

BACK JACK-KNIFE 


4 

BACK JACK-KNIFE 

7o 

4 

BACK JACK-KNIFE 

73 

4 

BACK JACK-KNIFE 

/ o 


VOLUNTARY DIVES 



VOLUNTARY DIVES 



VOLUNTARY DIVES 



VOLUNTARY DIVES 


NO. 

IN TABLE 

JUDGE* 

AWAOO 

DEGREE 
OF DIFF 

NO. 

in table 

JUDGES 

AWARD 

DEGREE 
or OIFF 

MO. 

IN TABLE 

JUOGC& 

AWAPO 

DEGREE 
OF OIFF 

NO. 

JUDGES 

OEG»EE 

5 

23 

fit 

7 

/•7 

/tf 

5 

31 I 

y/ 

2- 

20 

¥.o 

5 

23 

\/ll 

9 

t-7 

/53 

5 

35 

X 

7 

7.0 

/4C 

6 

V) 

fit 

JL 

/(, 

m 

6 


y/t 

3 

2.0 

Lo 

6 

35 

X 

75 

70 

/S.o 

6 

73 

y// 

7 

/ 7 

/.53 

7 

3G 

*/ 

s 

A 

/s.l 

7 

U5 

M 

- / 

2.0 

7.0 

7 

3S 

X/ 

/o 

/■8 

/8.0 

7 

3Z 

X/ 

/o 

/■8 

/80 

8 

Ur 

x// 

u 

r.o 

s.o 

8 

3/ 

V/f 

0 

2 0 

0.0 

8 

37 

X/ 

/o 

no 

701 

8 

3o 

y// 

?3 

2 . o 

190 

3 

us 

y/f, 

/ 

7.0 

7.0 

9 

30 

v/f 

G 

7.0 

no 

9 

JS 

IV 

G 

/ 7 

//.4 

9 

/S 

ry 

G 

/9 

H4 

10 

to 

V( 

7 

/■$ 

n.t> 

10 

35 

X 

S 

10 

/GO 

10 

7 

V/ 

75 

/8 

135 

10 

33 

/X 

75 

/S 

13.5 

TOTAL POINTS ^J.t 

total POINTS 7 r $( 

TOTAL POINTS /29.J 

TOTAL POINT 

s/29.7 

PLACE NO. ^ 

PLACE NO. j/7 

PLACE no. gjs? 

PLACE NO. 

CHECKED BY. JUDGES SIGNATURE^ A/ 


Judges Green and Rose also filled out score cards, which at the close of the competition 
were collected by the Calculating Committee, and a summary of the total points made. 


SUMMARY 







judge: 

POINTS 

PLACE 

POINTS 

PLACE 

POINTS 

PLACE 

POINTS 

PLACE 


97-/ 


77-o 

A 

777-7 

//e 

727 7 

~7/z 


77 O 


2%.c 

4 

737.4- 

/ 

'282 

2 


77-3 


72.0 

4 - 

'7-7-7- 

2 

737-2 

/ 

TOTAL 

273 7- 

9 

759.0 

/z 

39/5 

4-Zz 

383/ 


FINAL PLACING 


3™ 




7ST 


2 N * 

AVERAGE POINTS 

77-8 


8&33 


' 30.43 


/ 2370 


SCORERS’ SIGNAT 

- • _ -Y- 

ures: 


/3 • 




'-Z ' c uy uuumg me place numbers of each 

competitor, the one having the lowest total of place numbers winning. In the event 
that there is a tie for place numbers the competitor having the greatest average num¬ 
ber of points wins. In the above summary, Brown and Black having the same total of 
place numbers, the average total of points decides the competition, and Brown wins. 






















































































READY RECKONER FOR SCORING DIFFICULTY OF DIVES. 


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Example: If a judge awards 7.5 for a 2.3 dive the result 17.25 is found at a glance 

141 





















142 


Spalding’s Athletic Library 


WHEN AN AMATEUR BECOMES 
A PROFESSIONAL 

Enters a competition for money or for prizes 
of more than $jy in value. 

Sells or pawns prizes. 

Accepts a purse of money. 

Enters a competition wider a false name. 

Enters a competition open to a professional } 
or knowingly competes with a professional. 

Teaches , trains , or coaches in an athletic sport 
for money or any valuable consideration. 

Competes in games not duly authorized. 

Enters open games when unregistered. 

Allows name to be used to advertise or pro¬ 
mote the sale of , or to act as personal solicitor 
for the sale , or as the actual salesman of sport- 
ing goods , prizes } trophies. 

Capitalizes his athletic fame. 


S palding's Athletic Library 


143 


THE WOMEN’S SWIMMING ASSOCIATION 

OF NEW YORK 


The Women’s Swimming Association 
of New York has played such a con¬ 
spicuous role in the development of aquatics 
for the sex, and achieved success by 
means so unique and remarkable, that a 
brief outline of its purposes and methods 
seems particularly desirable in these pages, 
for girls and women seeking to further the interests of 
swimming will find therein most helpful and valuable 
suggestions. 



The Women’s Swimming Association is a member¬ 
ship organization formed and conducted for the 
purpose of encouraging girls and women to learn to 
swim for self-protection, then to practice swimming 
for health, physical improvement and recreation. 
One of the outstanding aims is to provide the best of 
elementary and advanced instruction at rates so low 
that anyone may take advantage, and to this end the 
association is run on a co-operative, amateur plan. 
With the exception of the pool manager and two 
assistants, whose time is taken up entirely by their 
duties, all the workers are volunteers, seeking and 
receiving no other reward than the satisfaction of 
furthering a worthy cause. 

The teaching and coaching is done chiefly by a 
staff composed largely of members of the competitive 
team and these volunteers take turns in performing 





Spalding's Athletic Library 


self-imposed tasks. They serve in squads of three or 
four one evening a week for one month, so that the 
turn of each recurs approximately at intervals of six 
months. This system has the double advantage of 
reducing to a minimum the cost of instruction and of 
fitting the volunteers for professional careers, if the 
need ever arises. 

For the purpose of instruction there are held daily 
a number of sessions, or classes, of fifty minutes each, 
during which from twenty to thirty pupils are taught 
simultaneously, but separately. The several instructors 
take places along the poolside and direct first one, 
then another, so that all receive individual attention. 
Beginners are made to practice across the width of' 
the pool, while the more advanced swim the tank 
lengthwise. Beginners are transferred to the advanced 
sessions just so soon as they can cover one length of 
the pool comfortably. 

Actually no charge is made for instruction. Members 
pay yearly dues of fifteen dollars in semi-annual allot¬ 
ments and that entitles them to attend one session a 
week, or fifty-two during the year. It is provided, 
however, that the semestral dues may be applied to 
a membership of three months and two attendances a 
week, or a membership of two months and three 
attendances a week. 

In order to systematize the teaching and prevent 
crowding new members are required on joining to 
name the particular session or sessions for which they 
wish to register. They must confine themselves to 
such sessions thereafter, unless they ask for a transfer, 


145 


Spa I d i n g j At hi eti c L i b ra ry 

which they may do at any time. Note is made of the 
selected sessions on the membership cards, which 
must be presented for admission, so that the supervisor 
is able to check all activities. 

No age limit is placed on membership and the 
association usually harbors little maids as young as 
three and four as well as women of sixty and even 
upward. 

The competitive team is allowed exclusive use of 
the pool one evening a week and the contestants 
then receive special coaching. In addition, members 
of the team who assist with the teaching have the 
pool to themselves for half an hour each evening at 
the conclusion of the open sessions. 

Membership on the team must be earned. Any 
girl in the organization may ask for a trial at any 
time, but in order to qualify, she must swim 220 
yards in good form without tiring and cover 100 
yards in time warranted to give her a good chance 
in a novice race. A girl fulfilling these requirements 
at once is extended the privilege to train with the 
contestants. It is a rule, however, that no candidate 
may become a regular member of the team until she 
has been affiliated with the association for six months. 
This provision enables the officials to observe closely 
each candidate during the period of probation and 
ascertain whether or not she is desirable in every way 
as a representative of the organization. 

The association is administered by a board of 
governors elected by the general membership at the 
annual meetings and the officers are: president, vice- 


146 Spalding's Athletic Library 

president, secretary and treasurer. While the governors 
decide all matters of importance, the actual activities 
are carried on and directed by various committees 
appointed by the governing board. These committees 
include: Pool committee, in charge of the upkeep 
and supervision of the natatorium; membership com¬ 
mittee, entrusted with a steady campaign for members 
and the investigation of applicants’ references; finance 
committee, delegated to look after the exchequer, 
seek means to raise funds when necessary and invest any 
surplus; sports committee, in control of the contestants 
and authorized to make arrangements for water 
carnivals, out-of-town trips of competitors and all 
such matters; publication committee, whose principal 
task is to publish the W. S. A. News, the monthly 
magazine of the association; entertainment com¬ 
mittee, to handle social functions and take care of 
visiting contestants and guests, and such other com¬ 
mittees as circumstances may require. 

An advisory board of men takes part in the meetings 
of the governors, but its members have no vote and 
serve solely as counsellors. 

Under this interesting, co-operative regime the 
association in a few years has grown from a struggling 
little club into the most prominent organization of 
its kind in the world; an organization whose influence 
has become worldwide. 

Annually the association teaches swimming to 
thousands of girls and women; its members have 
saved many lives; its contestants have reaped the 


147 


Spalding’s Athletic Library 

highest laurels at home and abroad; the stroke devel¬ 
oped and introduced by its experts—the six-beat 
double trudgeon-crawl—now is recognized the world 
over as the best evolved to date. 

Particularly commendable is the fine spirit of 
broadminded helpfulness always nursed and displayed 
by the Women’s Swimming Association. No one 
desiring to study its methods or take advantage of 
its findings ever has failed to receive a welcome. Far 
and wide it has spread knowledge of the modern 
science of natation. Many an American and foreign 
coach has been afforded the opportunity to watch 
the teaching staff at work; many a swimmer of rival 
organizations throughout this country has sought 
coaching at the hands of the club experts and been 
cordially accommodated; several girl champions of 
other nations owe their success in large measure to the 
good offices of representatives of the association. 

In this unselfish policy of universal helpfulness the 
association leaders have been, and are actuated by 
the firm conviction that to foster interest and progress 
in swimming is to render incalculable service to 
humanity. They point out that widespread interest in 
swimming must be of benefit to the entire race, because 
there is no form of exefcise equally healthy and physi¬ 
cally profitable; that general progress must be oi 
inestimable value, because the more efficient the 
methods used, the better devotees will be equipped for 
self-protection and the rescue of others, the greater 
the consequent reduction in the loss of life by drowning. 


148 


Spaiding’s Athletic Library 

It is an idealistic doctrine, most earnestly and 
successfully carried out by this remarkable organi¬ 
zation. 

The publishers of “Swimming for Women” are 
authorized to state that the Women’s Swimming 
Association will be glad to reply to enquiries from 
girls and women concerning any point in watermanship 
or the methods and plans of the organization itself. 
The Women’s Swimming Association also publishes a 
monthly paper which contains information concerning 
the Association and answers questions relating to 
swimming. Letters, which should be accompanied by 
a self-addressed stamped return envelope, should be 
sent to the Women’s Swimming Association, 145 West 
55th Street, New York City. 


149 


Spalding s Athletic Library 


WHAT TO WEAR 

It is not such a long time since the standard bathing 
suit worn by women was not only ugly in appearance 
hut also a positive deterrent to the wearer becoming 
proficient in this necessary as well as pleasurable 
accomplishment. 

While great advancement has been made in fit and 
general design of women’s bathing suits, after all there 
remains the one predominant requirement of quality. 
In the latter, Spalding bathing suits are pre-eminent. 
Made in Spalding’s own factories—situated in Brook¬ 
lyn, Chicago and San Francisco—each garment must 
undergo the rigid tests that form the basis of the firm’s 
reputation for quality. Worsted that will not shrink, 
dyes that will not be readily afifected by the elements 
and ability to withstand the usage that the activity of 
swimming requires, all are essentials of Spalding 
manufacture. 

Another feature—and a most important one when 
bathing suits are considered—is the hygienic or sanitary 
end of manufacture. One would not knowingly wear 
a garment that had been exposed to unsanitary sur¬ 
roundings, but unless the origin of the article is known, 
there is always room for doubt. This is one feature of 
Spalding factory work that is particularly stressed- 
cleanliness. Spalding workrooms are large, light, airy 
and healthful. Every garment made in them for human 


150 Spalding’s Athletic Library 


wear is handled with as much care as if it were for 
the individuars own use. 

All these points should all he remembered when pur¬ 
chasing bathing suits. 

Spalding Racing Suits 

Racing suits are made in two styles—one-piece for 
indoor pool practice and one-piece with skirt attached 
for general competition. One-piece suits are usually 
plain gray or white, close fitting and buttoning over 
shoulder, in silk, worsted, mercerized cotton or plain 
cotton. 

For competition before the general public and in 
championship events, the rules specify that the swimmer 
must wear a suit of dark color with skirt attached. 
The material is usually black silk. 

For diving and general exhibition swimming the same 
suits as for regular competition are worn. 

Schools, camps or women’s organizations requiring 
swimming outfits should write to the nearest Spalding 
store (see inside cover for prices). 

Catalogue of regulation bathing suits will be mailed 
free on request from any Spalding store. 


Spalding’s Athletic Library 


151 


BOOKS ON SWIMMING 

“Science of Swimming,” by Frank J. Sullivan, swim¬ 
ming director at Princeton University, published in the 
Spalding Athletic Library series (25 cents), contains 
directions for learning to swim, and instructions for 
becoming proficient in the various racing strokes, fancy 
diving and life-saving. Mr. Sullivan is also editor 
of the Intercollegiate Swimming Guide, published an¬ 
nually (25 cents), which contains pictures, records, 
reviews and general information, together wtih the 
official rules governing competitive swimming, water 
polo and water basket ball. 

Spalding’s “Camps and Camping,” published an¬ 
nually (25 cents), the official authority on camp activi¬ 
ties, usually contains interesting articles on swimming 
activities at girls’ summer camps. 

The Spalding Athletic Almanac (25 cents), contains 
men’s and women’s swimming records, in addition to 
records of track. It is published annually. 

The official handbook of the Women’s Committee 
of the American Physical Educational Association, 
edited by Miss Elizabeth Burchenal, contains the rules 
for swimming as adopted by that organization, special 
articles on the subject by leading physical directors, and 
other interesting information on track and field and 
soccer foot ball for women. Price 25 cents. 




W omen’s Swimming Suits and 
Track and Field Uniforms 

A. G. Spalding & Bros, have a special depart¬ 
ment of their factory devoted exclusively to 
the manufacture of women’s swimming suits, 
track and field wear, basket ball and field 
hockey uniforms. 

Every garment is carefully made, under the 
most hygienic conditions, and represents the 
best in quality and manufacture. 


















A Word to Buyers and Users 
of Athletic Goods 


You don’t "pay for the name’' when 
you buy something ’’Spalding’’ as 
those who are afler larger profits 
sometimes allege. 

You pay for—and get— satisfaction. 
The name, as evidenced in the 
Spalding Trade Mark, is a guarantee 
that you get what you pay for. 



4 














Spalding 

College , School and Camp 

Unifc 


orms 


In addition to implements for athletic sport 
of every description, A. G. Spalding & Bros, 
are also equipped to supply uniforms (made 
in their own factory) for women’s colleges, 
schools and girls’ camps. 


Estimates and full information can be 
obtained from the Women's College De¬ 
partment in the following Spalding stores: 



523 Fifth Avenue, New York 

1210 Chestnut Street 211 South Shite Street 

Philadelphia, Pa. Chicago, Ill. 

156-158 Geary Street, San Francisco, Cal. 













stands for Sportsmanship 
as well as Spalding 



Just as tlie nation is governed by laws, 
so is every athletic sport governed by its 
own particular laws, called rules. 

"Sportsmanship” means "according to the 
rules”—fair play—a respect for the rights 
of others—taking no mean advantage. 

For almost half a century A. G. Spalding 
& Bros, have been playing the game fair 
by putting into every article they manu¬ 
facture the best materials and the best 
workmanship that can be obtained. 

That is why athletic goods are always 
compared with "Spalding’s.” Just as good 
as Spalding’s is what you are told when 
it is desired to substitute. Don’t be 
deceived, however; the "just as good” 
kind is never just the same. Insist upon 
seeing the Spalding Trade Mark. That is 
you r safeguard when buying athletic goods. 















Spalding Bathing Suits 

Always correct in form and attractive in 
appearance, Spalding Bathing Suits are 
the particular choice of swimmers who 
want the best. 

All Spalding Bathing Suits are made in 
Spalding factories, of pure worsted yarn, 
under the best sanitary conditions. They 
are durable, comfortable and correctly 
cut; knitted in a smooth, even stitch and 
retain their shape. 

A very important feature of Spalding- 
made Bathing Suits is that they absorb 
very little water and dry out quickly. 

In Two-Piece or Pacific Coast styles. 


Schools or organizations outfit¬ 
ting swimming classes or teams 
should write for prices and 
samples to nearest Spalding 
store (see list inside front cover). 
























How To Care For A 
Bathing Suit 

P roperly cared for, a Spalding Bathing Suit will last 
a long time and keep both its shape and appearance. 
All it needs is the observance of a few simple rules. 

When you reach home after a swim, rinse suit in fresh 
water, taking care to get all the sand and all the water out. 
This is important. Spread out to dry, if possible, on the 
grass. Then place the suit on a hanger, pinning trunks to 
shirt with clothespins (if a two-piece suit), and hang up, 
or fold, and put away. 

On the other hand, if a suit when brought home soggy with 
salt water and filled with sand, is thrown in a heap on the 
floor until the next swim, it will deteriorate. Repeated 
treatment of this kind will ruin the highest grade suit 
money can buy. 

A Bathing Suit should never be hung on a nail. This act 
will break the threads and start holes, besides throwing the 
suit out of shape. 

When you do these things and your suit goes wrong, you 
may blame the manufacturer, though the fault lies with 
you. Economy is wealth, and we serve our patrons best 
when we endeavor to point out to them the methods by 
which the life of a bathing suit can be prolonged. 



















This trade mark means 



to 



It answers your question, Why should I buy 
athletic goods of A. G. Spalding 8c Bros.?—or 

What do I get for my money when I buy 


Spalding goods? 


Like the Rock of Gibraltar, it does not talk, 
yet it stands for much—permanence and de¬ 
pendability. 

The Spalding Trade Mark on any article of 
athletic equipment is a guarantee that the 
materials are the finest, the workmanship the 
best, the prices fair and the design as modern 
as nearly half a century of progressive develop¬ 
ment can make it. 

It says to you—Spalding’s Athletic Goods are 
the best. There are no better made. 

















































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